by Ray Takeyh
Albright, Madeleine, 114–15
al-Dawa Party, in Iraq, 65, 168, 178, 179
Algiers Accords (1975), 166, 168
allies, of Iran
in Iraq, 178–80, 181, 181–82
Syria, 70–71, 72, 75, 146
al-Qaeda, 74, 80, 144, 222
Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC), 86–87, 88
anti-fascist front, 56
anti-imperialism, revolutionary ideology and, 16
anti-Semitism, 189, 190, 210
antitank missiles, 106–7
anti-Western ideology, 16, 17, 17–18, 26–27, 53, 119–20
Arab bloc
Egypt and, 72–73, 75
Iranian influence in, 196, 212–13
Iraq and, 104–5, 162, 166, 168
Israel and, 191, 197, 199, 200, 206–7
Arab East region, 60, 70–76, 81
Arab-Israeli peace process
Bush administration and, 128, 129
Clinton administration and, 113–14
Egypt and, 73, 74, 104–5
Iranian foreign policy and, 72, 73, 75–76, 206–7, 210–11, 212, 214–15
terrorism and, 203–4, 224–26
Arab League, 207, 211
Arab people, in Iran, 164, 166
Arafat, Yasser, 207
armed conflict, with Israel, 199–200
armed forces
Iran-Iraq War and, 143, 168, 171–72, 173, 174
Israel and, 199–200
Muhammad Mossadeq and, 90
Pahlavi monarchy and, 194
of the United States, 123, 177–78, 184–85
arms-for-hostages deal. See Iran-Contra affair
arms trade
Iran-Contra affair and, 106–7
Israel and, 105, 192, 200–201
Palestinians and, 128, 130
Russia and, 76, 77, 78
Asefi, Hamid, 210
Assembly of Experts, 24–25
assets, frozen, 116
Association of Militant Clergy, 49
“axis of evil,” 2, 53, 128–29, 155
Azari-Qomi, Ahmad, 36
Azerbaijan province, 183
Aziz, Tariq, 172
Ba’ath Party, 71, 162, 165, 166, 176
Badr Brigade, 178–79
Bahonar, Muhammad Reza, 37
Bahrain, 64, 65
Bani-Sadr, Abolhassan, 26, 26–27
Bazargan, Mehdi, 22, 24, 96–97, 99
Beheshti, Muhammad, 23
Beirut Marine bombing, 67, 204
Ben-Gurion, David, 192
bin Laden, Osama, 122
Bonn Conference (2001), 123
bonyads (religious foundations), 38
Bonyan (newspaper), 209
borders, of Iran, 183
Borujerdi, Muhammad Hussein, 12
Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 97
bureaucracy
economy and, 37, 38
Iranian nuclear program and, 156–57
political factions and, 2, 40, 42
in the United States, 114, 116
Bush, George W., 1, 118, 124–25, 127–28, 128–29, 135. See also Bush administration
Bush (George H. W.) administration, 137
Bush (George W.) administration
containment policy and, 220
democracy and, 163, 219
Iraq and, 177, 186
Pakistan and, 80
in post–September 11 period, 117–18, 124–30, 145
in pre–September 11 period, 124
reformist faction and, 52–53, 54
Camp David Accords, 73, 75, 168
capitalism, 13, 14, 18, 20
Carter, Jimmy, 98, 99, 101
Carter administration, 95, 97, 98–99, 100
censorship, 50, 52
Central Asia, 77–78, 78–79, 140
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 92–93
Chechnya, 78
chemical weapons
international community and, 176
Iranian, 147
Iran-Iraq War and, 101–2, 103, 142, 143, 172–73
Cheney, Dick, 125, 129
Chernomyrdin, Viktor, 137
China
Iranian foreign policy and, 5, 132–33
nuclear weapons and, 157, 159, 159–60
as political model, 40
U.S. foreign policy and, 221–22
Christopher, Warren, 113
civilians, Iran-Iraq War and, 173
civil rights, 39, 44
clergy. See also theocracy
clerical activism and, 12–13
government by, 15, 21, 25, 33
Iran-Iraq War and, 170–71
in Iraq, 168, 180
Muhammad Mossadeq and, 90–91
opposition to Israel by, 192–93
opposition to monarchy by, 93–94
opposition to theocracy by, 27
reformist faction and, 44, 45, 48–49, 56–57
revolutionary coalition and, 19
secularism and, 22
Clinton administration, 85, 108, 113–16, 137–38, 206–7
CNN interview, with Muhammad Khatami, 112, 116
Cold War, 61–62, 126
colonialism, 86, 194
commerce and industry. See also international trade
bonyads (religious foundations) and, 38
conservative faction and, 37, 42
pragmatists’ faction and, 40–41
Revolutionary Guards and, 38
United States and, 121
communism, 22, 76–77, 91. See also Tudeh Party
conservative faction, 2, 29, 31–32, 33–39
Clinton administration and, 115
consolidation of power and, 53, 54–55
foreign policy and, 69–70, 75, 111, 112, 113
Iran-Contra affair and, 109–10
Iranian nuclear program and, 147–51
Iraq and, 182–83
Israel and, 209, 211–13
in post–September 11 period, 117–18, 119–20, 131–34
pragmatists’ faction and, 42–43
reformist faction and, 52, 116
role of government and, 49
consolidation of theocratic government, 20–30, 65–66, 96–97, 97–98, 99–100, 100–101
constitution, of the Islamic Republic, 22–23, 24–25, 28, 55, 56, 99
containment, U.S. policy of, 85, 118, 124–25, 220
corruption, 5, 14, 38
Council of the Revolution, 23
counterproliferation measures, 139
coups, in Iraq, 164, 165
Cronkite, Walter, 99
cultural influences, Western, 36, 42, 44–45. See also anti-Western ideology
cultural restrictions
backlash against, 48
conservative faction and, 5
Khomeini and, 28
pragmatists’ faction and, 41–42, 43
reformist faction and, 46–47, 50–51
U.S. Embassy crisis and, 99–100
Dayan, Moshe, 201
Defense Industries Organization, 156
democracy
clerical authority and, 21, 91
conservative faction and, 35–36, 52
constitution of the Islamic Republic and, 56
factions, within Iranian government and, 3–4, 218
in Iraq, 163, 175, 181, 182–83, 223–24
Islam and, 46–47, 48–49
Mossadeq coup and, 84, 86, 87, 93, 94
pragmatists’ faction and, 40, 41
reformist faction and, 32, 44, 49–50, 51
theocracy and, 14–15, 34, 56–57
U.S. promotion of, 125, 218–19
Western cultural influences and, 111–12
demographic changes, in conservative faction, 34–35
deterrence
by Iran, 184–85
Iranian nuclear program and, 142–43, 145, 146, 147
U.S. containment policy and, 85, 118, 124–25, 220
“Dialogue of Civiliz
ations” proposal, 111, 210
diplomatic ties
with Persian Gulf states, 66
with Saudi Arabia, 65
with the United States, 97, 107, 112, 117–18
dissent, right to, 39
drug trade, 80
“dual containment” policy, 114, 115
dual-use technologies, 137
Dulaimi, Saadun al-, 177
Dulles, John Foster, 92
Eastern Europe, democracy in, 219
“Eastern orientation” policy, 132–33
Ebadi, Shirin, 53–54
economic incentives, international community and, 159, 160
economic issues
capitalism, 13, 14
international trade, 76, 77, 120, 133–34, 151–52, 222
in the Persian Gulf region, 64–65
political factions and, 29, 31, 32, 37–38, 40–41
relations with the United States and, 121
economic policy
conservative faction and, 36–39, 54–55
obstacles to reform, 38–39
pragmatists’ faction and, 40–41
Western cultural influences and, 42
young conservatives and, 133–34
economic sanctions
Clinton administration and, 115, 116
Europe and, 225
failure of, 21
Iranian nuclear program and, 150, 151–52, 160
Iranian opposition to Israel and, 196, 209
nationalization crisis and, 89–90
U.S. Embassy crisis and, 98
Egypt
Iranian foreign policy and, 71, 72–75
Iraq and, 166, 168, 181
Israel and, 104–5, 200
Khomeini and, 19
pan-Arabist ideology and, 164
Eisenhower, Dwight D., 92
elections
clerical authority and, 21
for parliament, 24
presidential, 9–10, 50
reformist faction and, 50, 51
in the United States, 101
Emami-Kashani, Muhammad, 120
employment, 121
Esra’il va Qods-e Aziz (Rafsanjani), 196
Etemad, Akbar, 136
E’temad (newspaper), 54–55
ethnicity
Iranian minorities and, 96, 164, 166
Iran’s place in the Middle East and, 62–63
Iraq and, 164–65, 166
Eurasia, 60, 76–82
Europe, 69, 112, 136–37, 198, 225
Expediency Council, 32
expulsion from Iran, of Khomeini, 17
factions, within Iranian government, 2–3, 29–30, 218
conservative faction, 33–39
following death of Khomeini, 31–33
foreign policy and, 4
Iran-Contra affair and, 107–8, 109–10
Iran-Iraq War and, 175
nuclear program and, 135–36, 146–54
political future and, 54–57
in post–September 11 period, 119–22, 131–34
pragmatists’ faction, 39–44
reformist faction, 44–54
Fadayan-e Khalq (political party), 22
Faisal, Saud al-, 178
Fanon, Frantz, 14
Farda (newspaper), 153
Feith, Douglas, 126
foreign aid
to Afghanistan, 123
from the United States, 86, 89
foreign debt, 43
foreign investment, 40–41, 42, 43, 121, 136–37
foreign policy
anti-Western ideology and, 17–18, 19, 24–25
Arab East region and, 70–76
Arab-Israeli peace process and, 72, 73, 75–76, 206–7, 210–11, 212, 214–15
Eurasia and, 76–82
historical influences on, 61–63
of Iraq, 182
of Israel, 104–5
Khatami presidency and, 110–16
Persian Gulf region and, 63–70
political factions and, 31, 35, 132–34
in post–September 11 period, 117–18, 118–23, 130
provisional government and, 97
revolutionary ideology and, 6, 16, 59–60, 219
of the Shah, 165–66
of the United States, 1–2, 3, 20–21, 108, 118, 124–30, 219–26
U.S. invasion of Iraq and, 131
France, 158, 159–60
Freedom Movement, 96–97
Germany, 137, 158, 159–60
Ghavarian, Moslemin, 35
Ghotbzadeh, Sadeqh, 83
global economy, 120, 133–34, 151–52, 222. See also international trade
Golan Heights, 71
Golpayegani, Muhammad Reza, 27
“Good Neighbor” diplomacy, 68–69
Gore, Al, 137
government. See also factions, within Iranian government
monarchy, Iranian
theocracy
in Iraq, 179, 180–81, 182–83
of Islamic Republic, factions within, 29
Khomeini’s conception of, 15
nonelected institutions of, 34
role of, 36, 43–44, 46, 47, 49, 51–52
government service, Muhammad Mossadeq and, 87–88
gradualism, reformists and, 50–51, 52
Great Britain, 61, 86, 87, 88–90, 158, 159–60
“Great Game,” 61
Guardian Council, 21, 25, 34, 52
Gulf Cooperation Council, 65
Gulf states, 19
Gulf War, 66–67, 113
Haddad-Adel, Gholam-Ali, 183
Hajarian, Sa’eed, 45–46
Hamas, 74, 202, 203, 215
hard-liners. See conservative faction
Harriman, Averell, 89
Hashemite monarchy, of Iraq, 162, 163, 164, 186
Hezbollah
arms for, 130
influence of, 74
Iranian support for, 70, 191, 200, 202, 204–6, 211
U.S. hostages in Lebanon and, 106
history, of Iran, 61–62, 86
Holbrooke, Richard, 114
Holocaust revisionism, 189, 198–99, 212
hostages. See also U.S. Embassy crisis
Hezbollah and, 204
Iran-Contra affair and, 104, 105–6, 107
Hukumat-e Islami (Islamic Government) (Khomeini), 15
Hussein, Saddam
Iran-Iraq War and, 26, 101–2, 142, 168–69, 171
relations with Iran and, 162
rise to power of, 166–67
war crimes and, 176
Hussein-Tash, Ali, 149
ideological differences, between Iran and Iraq, 164–67, 167–68, 169–70
ijtihad (interpretation), 46
impeachment, of Abolhassan Bani-Sadr, 26–27
imperialism, of the West, 61–62
India, 133, 140, 150, 153, 157
industry. See commerce and industry
influence, of Iran
on the Arab bloc, 212–13
in Iraq, 6–7, 65, 224
on Israel, 202, 203–4
in Lebanon, 185, 200, 206
informants, 28
insurgency, Iraqi, 184, 205
intellectual classes
constitution of the Islamic Republic and, 55
democratic institutions and, 57
opposition to Israel by, 192, 194
reformist faction and, 45
suppression of, 28
International Atomic Energy Association (IAEA), 139, 152
international community
Iranian nuclear program and, 138, 150, 151–52, 158–60
Iranian opposition to Israel and, 196
Iranian public opinion and, 155
Iran-Iraq War and, 176
Israeli nuclear weapons and, 141
weapons of mass destruction and, 143, 148–49
international cooperation, in Persian Gulf, 66–67
international isolation
Iran-Contra affai
r and, 109
Iranian nuclear program and, 146, 152–53
Iran-Iraq War and, 174
U.S. Embassy crisis and, 101–2
international law, 101–2
international relations. See foreign policy
international trade, 66, 76, 77, 120, 133–34. See also global economy
invasion, of Iran. See Iran-Iraq War
Iran-Contra affair, 85, 102–3, 103–10, 200, 204
Iranian hostage crisis. See U.S. Embassy crisis
Iranian revolution (1979), 2–3, 20–30, 95–96, 97–98
Iran-Iraq War, 167–74
aftermath of, 65–66, 175–77
arms trade with Israel and, 200–201
conservative faction and, 132
Egypt and, 73–74
establishment of theocratic government and, 26
Iran-Contra affair and, 106, 108
Iranian nuclear program and, 142–43, 148–49
Soviet Union and, 77
U.S. Embassy crisis and, 101, 101–2
Iran News, 146
Iraq. See also Iran-Iraq War
Ba’ath Party regime and, 165–66, 167–77
Bush administration and, 125
Clinton administration and, 113, 114, 114–15
Gulf War and, 66–67
insurgency in, 184, 205
Iranian foreign policy and, 63, 161–63, 163–67
Iranian influence in, 6–7, 65, 224
Iranian nuclear program and, 142–44
Israel and, 104–5, 200–201
neoconservative movement and, 126, 127–28
nuclear weapons and, 141
post-Hussein era and, 177–87
Syria and, 71–72
U.S. foreign policy and, 103–4, 109, 222–23, 223–24
U.S. invasion of, 130–31, 145
Islam. See also Shiite Islam; Sunni Islam
anti-Western ideology and, 16, 17
conservative faction and, 35–36
democratic institutions and, 46–47
interpretations of, 31
Iran-Iraq War and, 170
nationalism and, 13–14
personal behavior and, 28, 36
political involvement and, 13–14
revolutionary coalition and, 20
Islamic Coalition Society, 36
Islamic Government (Khomeini), 193
Islamic Jihad, 74, 191, 202–3
Islamic law, commerce and industry and, 37
Islamic Participation Front, 152
Islamic Republican Party (IRP), 25
Islamic Salvation Front, 74
Islamic sects, 63
Islamic state. See also theocracy
appeal of, 11
constitution of the Islamic Republic and, 25
cultural revolution and, 28
foreign policy and, 59
institutionalization of, 20
reformist faction and, 45–46
regional ambitions and, 18–19
religious society and, 47–48
Islamism
Arab East region and, 74
Central Asian Republics and, 77–78
Egypt and, 74–75
government and, 217–18
Iraq and, 179
Israel and, 193, 195, 197