5Hastings (2009: 86).
6Kennedy (1986: 93).
7Slade to Lindemann, 1 December 1939, LIND D101/1; ‘Anglo-American Economic Cooperation’ by Melchett, D109/20; Melchett to Lindemann, 14 January 1941, LIND D105/14; Melchett to Lindemann, 3 July 1941, LIND D107/1.
8Oliphant to Appleton, 18 June 1940, LIND G526/12.
9Gowing (1964: 75).
10Minutes of the MAUD committee, 19 May 1941, AB1/8, NA.
11Minutes of the MAUD technical committee, 9 April 1941, AB1/8, NA.
12Letter from Cockcroft to his wife, 21 March 1941, CKFTFAMILY.
13A few days later, Conant was startled to hear more from the American Ambassador’s assistant Ben Cohen about the British programme to develop a nuclear weapon. Hershberg (1993: 146).
14Chadwick to Dickens, 25 and 30 June 1941, AB 1/222, NA.
15Minutes of MAUD technical committee, 2 July 1941, AB 1/8, NA.
16The MAUD report is reprinted in full in Gowing (1964: 394–436).
17Chadwick to Feather, 16 July 1941, FEAT 23/6.
18Chadwick to Feather, 30 August and 6 September 1941, FEAT 23/6.
19Gowing (1964: 76–89).
20Tizard to Hankey, 5 August 1941, CAB 104/207, NA.
21Blackett to Pye, 5 August 1941, AB 1/238, NA; Gowing (1964: 78).
22Darwin to Hankey, 2 August 1941, CAB 104/227, NA.
23Hankey to Jonathan, ‘Uranium’, undated but evidently August 1941, CAB 126/330, NA.
24Thomson to Chadwick, 11 August 1941, CHAD I 19/7.
Lindemann backs a British Bomb
1Testimony by Lindemann to the Scientific Advisory Committee to the War Cabinet, 17 September 1941, CAB 90/8, p. 2, NA.
2Gowing (1964: 96). Lindemann to WSC, 27 August 1941, CAB 126/330, NA. Lindemann copied the letter to Sir John Anderson: CAB 126/39, NA. Lindemann’s recommendations differed little from the conclusion of the Defence Services Panel of the Scientific Advisory Committee, finalised on 25 September 1941, CAB 104/227, NA.
3CHBIO, Vol. 6, pp. 1176–7.
4Reynolds (1994: 130).
5‘President Debarks’, New York Times, 17 August 1941, p. 1.
6WSC to Hopkins, 28 August 1941, PREM 3/224/2, NA.
7Lindemann to WSC, 27 August 1941, CAB 126/330, NA.
8WSC to Ismay, 30 August 1941, PREM 3/139/8A, NA; WSC to Anderson, 23 August 1945, CHUR 2/3.
9Gowing (1964: 106).
10Ismay to Anderson, 4 September 1941, CAB 126/330, NA.
11Clark (1965: 300–1).
12Anderson to Hankey, 12 August 1941, CAB 126/330, NA.
13Reader (1975: 173–4, 292).
14Dictionary of National Biography, entry for Anderson by G. C. Peden.
15Anderson to Hankey, 6 August and 12 August 1941, CAB 126/330, NA.
16Anderson to Moore-Brabazon, 23 October 1941, CAB 126/330, NA.
17Birkenhead (1961: 256).
18Fort (2004: 233–4). Lindemann’s chauffeur was George Topp.
19I thank Peter Sarnak of the Institute of Advanced Study, Princeton, for giving me the benefit of his expert opinion on Lindemann’s contribution to the theory of prime numbers. Lindemann’s letter to the editor of Nature completed on 13 September 1941 was published on 11 October 1941 (Vol. 148, p. 436).
20A. V. Hill to Dale, 17 September 1941, HTT 58.
21Minutes of the 12th Meeting of the War Cabinet’s Scientific Advisory Committee, 17 September 1941, CAB 90/8, NA.
22Scientific Advisory Committee’s report on MAUD, 24 September 1941, CAB 90/8, NA.
23Hankey’s report also recommended that pilot plants should be built in Britain and Canada.
24Moore-Brabazon to Hankey, 27 August 1941, CAB 104/227, NA.
25Hankey to Moore-Brabazon, 27 August 1941, CAB 104/227, NA.
26WSC quoted, on 2 May 1948, in Colville (1985: 587).
27FDR to WSC, 11 October 1941, CAB 126/330, NA; PREM 3/139/8A, NA.
Oliphant bustles in America
1Cockcroft to his wife, 18 February 1941, CKFTFAMILY.
2Cockburn and Ellyard (1981: 29).
3Cockburn, S., and Ellyard, S. (1981: 74).
4Oliphant (1982: 17).
5Oliphant to Appleton, 27 October 1941, CHAD I 19/3.
6Oliphant to G. P. Thomson, 9 August 1941, AB 15/6077, NA.
7Oliphant (1982: 17).
8Rhodes (1986: 372–8).
9Monk (2012: 296).
10Bernstein (1976: 205).
11Villa (1977: 478).
12FDR to WSC, 11 October 1941, PREM 3/139/8A/574, NA.
13Weart and Szilárd (eds) (1978: 146).
14Gowing (1964: 109).
15Oliphant to Cockcroft, 3 November 1941, AB 1/157, NA.
16Oliphant to Appleton, 27 October 1941, CHAD I 19/3.
17Oliphant to Chadwick, 27 October 1941, CHAD I 19/3.
18Minutes of a meeting relating to Tube Alloys, 16 October 1941, CAB 126/46, NA.
19Oliphant to Chadwick, 27 October 1941, CHAD I 19/3.
20Chadwick to Oliphant, 10 November 1941, CHAD I 19/3.
21Oliphant to Cockcroft, 3 November 1941, AB 1/157, NA. The American scientists were Harold Urey and George Pegram.
22Oliphant to Chadwick, 12 November 1941, CHAD I 19/3. Some of the early briefing papers that Akers commissioned are in AB 1/256, NA.
23Oliphant to Chadwick, 14 January 1942, CHAD I 19/3.
24Cockburn and Ellyard (1981: 90–1, 163).
Churchill talks about the Bomb with FDR
1Eden (1965: 491).
2WSC to Roosevelt, December 1941, PREM 3/139/8A, NA.
3‘Tube Alloys’, report by Norman Brook, 27 November 1941, PREM 3/139/8A, NA.
4Gilbert (2005: 242–4).
5Roberts (1991: 280).
6Jenkins (2001: 672).
7WSC to Lord Privy Seal, 3 January 1942, CAB 120/29, NA.
8Gilbert (2005: 249).
9See the essays on WSC and Roosevelt in Berlin (1980). Also Hastings (2009: 224).
10Moran (1966: 420); Hastings (2009: 224).
11WSC to Mr Curtin, 13 January 1942, CAB 120/29, NA.
12He refers to ‘the stir’ in his note to Attlee, 11 January 1942, CAB 120/29, NA.
13Martin to WSC, 9 January 1942, PREM 3/139/8A, f. 568, NA.
14Norman Brook to John Martin, 10 December 1941, CAB 126/330, NA.
15War Cabinet, 17 January 1942, CAB 65/25/8, NA.
16Wheeler-Bennett (1958: 535). Churchill actually used the phrase ‘walking out’ rather than ‘courting’.
17Roosevelt to Bush, 11 March 1942, AEC 32.
18Hankey, ‘Bacteriological Weapons’, 6 December 1941, PREM 3/65. Bernstein (1987: 47–8).
19Hastings (2009: 236).
20Churchill (1951: 81).
21Jenkins (2001: 682–3).
22Harvie-Watt (1980: 63).
23Hankey to Halifax, 1 May 1941, Halifax papers CAC, ref. A4.410.4.5; Roskill to Rowe, 12 July 1968, C11, ROWE.
24Reynolds (2004: 334).
25Churchill (1951: 341).
26FDR to Bush, 11 July 1942, FDRLIB, Bush file.
27Reynolds (2004: 334).
28Welles (1950: 215).
29Churchill (1951: 343).
30Hastings (2009: 297).
31Alanbrooke (2002: 269).
32Notes by Hankey, 29 June 1942, HNKY 13/1.
33Anderson to WSC, 30 July 1942, PREM 3/139/8A, NA. Churchill wrote on the document ‘As proposed’ on 31 July.
Akers attempts a merger
1Akers to Perrin, 21 December 1942, CHAD I 28/2.
2Gowing (1964: 108–10).
3BMFRS, Akers, November 1955, pp. 1–4.
4Gowing (1964: 131).
5Gowing (1964: 128, 141).
6Brown (1997: 205–8).
7Interview by GF of Harold Agnew and Al Wattenburg, 30 November 1992.
8Gowing (1964: 139).
9For Akers’s view on the threat of the German project: memo to Anderson from his assistant, 11 June 1942, CAB 126/16
6, NA.
10Gowing (1964: 144–5, 437–8).
11Gowing (1964: 145).
12Akers to Perrin, 21 December 1942, CHAD I 28/2.
13Sachs (ed.) (1984: 43–53); Rhodes (1986: 433–42); interview by GF of Harold Agnew and Al Wattenburg, 30 November 1992.
14Atomic Heritage Foundation website is very useful: http://www.atomicheritage.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=295.
15Lanouette (1992: 237–8).
16Bird and Sherwin (2005: 185–6).
17Groves (1962: 125–6).
18Akers to Halban, 1 January 1943, CHAD I 28/2.
19Conant to Bush, ‘Some thoughts concerning the correspondence . . .’, 25 March 1943, FDRLIB.
20Gowing (1964: 176).
21Hewlett and Anderson (1962: 270).
22Peierls (1985: 173).
23Minutes of 13th Technical Committee of Tube Alloys, 22 January 1943, CAB 126/46, NA.
24Gowing (1964: 217).
25Chadwick to Fowler, 3 December 1942, CHAD IV 1/9; Peierls to Chadwick, 22 September 1942, CHAD I 19/6; Clark (1961: 184).
26Letter to The Times from A. V. Hill, 1 July 1942 (p. 5).
27Major General E. N. C. Clarke to Hill, 5 October 1942, AVHL I 2/2.
28Kirby and Rosenhead (2011: 11–15).
29Joubert to A. V. Hill, 4 March 1942, AVHL I 2/2.
30‘Combined Operations and a Great General Staff’, undated, probably 1942, AVHL I 2/1.
31E. J. S. Clarke to G. P. Thomson, 4 June 1958, GPT G58/3.
32Akers to Groves, 31 December 1942, CHAD I 28/2; obituary of Akers, Chemistry and Industry, 20 November 1954, p. 1449.
33Conant to Mackenzie, 2 January 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, NA.
34Conant memo, dated 7 January 1943 by Akers, PREM 3/139/8A, f. 460–1, NA; Gowing (1964: 155–7).
35Anderson to WSC, 23 July 1942, PREM 3/139/8A, NA.
36Bernstein (1976: 211).
37See, for example, Peierls to Akers, 1 May 1943, in Lee (ed.) (2007: 791–4)
Bush aims for an American monopoly
1Bush (1972: 280–1).
2Hershberg (1993: 180).
3Bernstein (1976: 211).
4Cockcroft to his mother, 11 July 1943, CKFTFAMILY.
5Zachary (1992: 24); Zachary (1999: 61–4, 90–5).
6Ratcliff (1942: 28, 40).
7Bush (1972: 280).
8Entry for Stimson, American National Biography, Oxford University Press (1989); Bernstein (1976: 210–11); Hewlett and Anderson (1962: 265–6).
9Bernstein (1976: 210).
10Hewlett and Anderson (1962: 267).
11http://www.atomicheritage.org/index.php/atomic-history-mainmenu-38/the-manhattan-project-begins-81942-121942-mainmenu-209/fdr-gives-final-approval-mainmenu-212.html.
12WSC to Hopkins, 1 April 1943, PREM 3/139/8A/523, NA.
13Bernstein (1976: 213).
14Conant to Bush, ‘Some thoughts concerning the correspondence . . .’, 25 March 1943, FDRLIB.
15Sherwood (2008: 159).
16Bush, V., Memorandum of conference with Mr Harry Hopkins and Lord Cherwell at the White House, May 25, 1943. FDRLIB ‘Atomic Bomb file’.
17Bernstein (1976: 214–15).
18Hewlett and Anderson (1962: 274).
19Hewlett and Anderson (1962: 275) give an account of the meeting based on contemporary sources. Bush’s recollections, written some twenty-six years later, are in Bush (1972: 282). See also Gowing (1964: 168n).
20STIMSON, Notes of Overseas Trip, 1943, entries for 17 July 1943, Brief Report of Certain Features of My Overseas Trip, 4 August 1943.
21This account of the meeting is taken from Hewlett and Anderson (1962: 275–7) and references therein, and from Bush (1972: 282–5).
Churchill’s nuclear deal with FDR
1Soames (2011: 275–6).
2‘Note on Tube Alloys’ by Lindemann, undated, probably January or February 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, f. 494, NA.
3See, for example, WSC to Hopkins, 1 April 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, NA.
4‘Tube Alloys’, Lindemann to WSC, 7 April 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, ff. 511–15, NA.
5WSC to Anderson, 15 April 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, ff. 502–3, NA.
6Gowing (1964: 163).
7Anderson to WSC, 26 July 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, ff. 422–4, NA.
8FDR to WSC, 26 July 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, f. 421, NA.
9Lindemann to WSC, 28 July 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, ff. 419–20, NA.
10Churchill to Tizard, 30 July 1943, CHAR 20/94A, f. 63.
11Gowing (1964: 170).
12Oppenheimer (1964b).
13Akers to Perrin, 19 August 1943, AB 1/376, NA.
14Pawle (1963: 243); CHBIO, Vol. 7, p. 461.
15Report on meeting by Cadogan, 29 August 1942, and note from Brown to Lawford, 27 October 1942, FO 1093/247; Reynolds (2004: 327).
16Meacham (2003: 225–8); Gilbert (2005: 278–9).
17CHBIO, Vol. 7, p. 471.
18CHBIO, Vol. 7, p. 470.
19Ward (ed.) (1995: 230–1).
20Meacham (2003: 237).
21CHBIO, Vol. 7, p. 476.
22Reynolds (2004: 156, 380).
23Cantelon, Hewlett and Williams (eds) (1984: 31–3).
24Hinsley, Thomas, Ransom and Knight (1981: 128).
25WSC to Lindemann, 27 May 1944, PREM 3/139/11A, ff. 761–2, NA.
26‘Negotiations with the Americans after the signing of the Quebec Agreement’ by Wallace Akers, 13 September 1943, AB 1/129, NA, p. 1.
27CHBIO, Vol. 7, p. 482.
28WSC to Smuts, 5 September 1943, CHAR 20/117.
29See the documents in MART 2 and 5, especially the report ‘Mr Churchill at Harvard’ by Barbara Williams.
30Text of WSC’s Harvard speech: http://www.winstonchurchill.org/learn/speeches/speeches-of-winston-churchill/118-the-price-of-greatness.
31Lindemann to WSC, 19 October 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, f. 312, NA.
Bohr takes a political initiative
1Interview with Joanna Batterham (née Chadwick) about Bohr’s visits to Los Alamos, 9 November 2012.
2Gowing (1964: 245–8).
3Pais (1991: 487–8).
4Perrin to Gorrell Barnes, 26 October 1943, CAB 126/39, NA.
5Brown (1997: 251).
6Anderson to Llewellin, undated memo, probably October 1943, CAB 126/39, NA.
7French and Kennedy (eds) (1985: 183–4, 230, 244).
8Robert Oppenheimer, quoted in ‘The Philosophy of Niels Bohr’ by Aage Peterson, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, September 1963, pp. 8–14, see p. 9; French and Kennedy (eds) (1985: 182).
9Peierls (1985: 180); Aaserud (2005: 13–15); Jones, R. V., ‘Meetings in Wartime and After’, in French and Kennedy (eds) (1985: 278–87); Aage Bohr’s journal ‘Bohr’s activities October 1943 to April 1945’, NBA.
10Bohr (1964: 197); testimony of Sir Charles Darwin’s wife, G41, GPT.
11New York Times, 9 October 1943, p. 3.
12Akers to Munro, 31 August 1943, AB 1/376, NA.
13Akers to Perrin, 31 August 1943, AB 1/376, NA.
14Anderson to WSC, 15 October 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, ff. 313–15, NA.
15‘Tube Alloys Project – negotiations with the Americans after the Quebec Agreement’, 24 September 1943, AB 1/129, NA; Oliphant to Chadwick, 21 November 1943, CHAD IV 3/7; Tube Alloys collaboration report, 9 October 1943, PREM 3/139/8A, , ff. 316–21, NA.
16Chadwick’s note on his meeting with Groves, 11 February 1944, CHAD IV 3/2.
17Monk (2012: 395, 397n); Powers (1993: 244, 536, note 11).
18Chadwick, J., ‘Comments on Mrs Gowing’s 2nd Volume’, CHAD IV 14/11, p. 3; Oliphant to Chadwick, 21 November 1943, CHAD IV 3/7.
19Anderson to WSC, 21 March 1944, PREM 3/139/2, NA.
20Anderson to Lewellin, undated but probably October 1943, CAB 126/39, NA; Journal 6.02 of Bohr’s activities, October 1943 to April 1945, NBA.
21Untitled Anderson memo, 25 November 1943, CAB 126/39, NA.
22Szasz (1984: 75); Powers (1993: 240–1
).
23Bohr (1964: 199).
24Hughes (2002: 65).
25Chadwick’s notes from meeting with Groves, 11 February 1944, CHAD IV 3/2.
26Gowing (1964: 249).
27Aydelotte to Hanson, 20 December 1943; Aydelotte to Bohr, 22 December 1943: Niels Bohr papers in DO Members’ Box 12a-36-47, IAS.
28Akers to Perrin, 27 January 1944, CAB 126/332, NA.
29Powers (1993: 246–8).
30Pais (1991: 462).
31Szasz (1992: 32–34); Peierls (1985: 187–203).
32Brown (2012: 45).
33Szasz (1992: 19).
34Oppenheimer (1964b).
35Teller (1962: 211).
36Szasz (1992: 148–9); note from Manhattan authorities to General Gee, 6 August 1946, FRISCH A58A.
37Oppenheimer (1964b).
38Akers to Perrin, 27 January 1944, CAB 126/332, NA.
39Powers (1993: 257).
40Bohr’s journal after he left Denmark in 1943, 6.02, pp. 3–5, NBI.
41Aaserud (2005: 20).
42Anderson to WSC, 21 March 1944, PREM 3/139/2, NA. This reference and all others relating to the preparations for the WSC–Bohr meeting are in Aaserud (2005: 20–3).
43Anderson to WSC, 27 April 1944, PREM 3/139/2, NA.
44Kapitza to Bohr, 28 October 1943, CAB 126/39, NA. Even on that date, Kaptiza believed Bohr was still in Sweden: see ‘Correspondence between Kapitza and B.’, 2 May 1945, CAB 126/39.
45Bohr (1964: 205).
46Wheeler-Bennett (1962: 297).
47Jones (1998: 476).
48Dale to WSC, 11 May 1944, CAB 126/39, NA.
49Comment on Gorrell Barnes to Anderson, 19 May 1944, CAB 126/39, NA.
50Sir Henry Dale to Lindemann, 11 May 1944, CAB 127/201, NA.
51Aaserud (2005: 25).
The Bulldog meets the Great Dane
1HNSRD.
2Brendon (1984: 187).
3Hastings (2009: 477).
4Jenkins (2001: 732–3).
5Dilks (ed.) (2010: 621).
6WSC to Eden, 21 October 1942, PREM 4/100/7, ff. 265–6, NA.
7Hastings (2009: 431–4).
8Reynolds (2004: 380–2).
9Moran (1966: 145–54).
10Hastings (2009: 484–5).
11Reynolds (2004: 417).
12This account of the Bohr–Churchill meeting is based on ‘The interview with the Prime Minister’ in Aage Bohr’s journal ‘Bohr’s activities October 1943 to April 1945’, NBA; Jones (1998: 475–7), Jones, R. V., ‘Meetings in Wartime and After’, in French and Kennedy (eds) (1985: 278–87); Aaserud (2005: 23–7); Gowing (1964: 355).
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