National Pest Control Association, 146
Neal, Paul A., 48–50, 65–66, 120, 126–128
Nelson, Arthur, 105
Nelson, Dallas, 105
Nelson, Erwin, 25–26
neonicitinoids, 221–222
neurotoxicity/central nervous system effects: DDT and, 48, 53, 65, 67
organophosphates and, 92–98, 106, 107, 110–113, 159, 191, 209–210, 211, 212. See also cholinesterase inhibition
Newell, S. R., 116–117
New Jersey health officials, 123
New Yorker, 162, 163
New York Times, x, 22, 34–35
nicotine, 198–199, 221
nicotinoids, 221
NIH. See National Institutes of Health
nitrogen mustards, 83–84
no-effect levels, 164–165, 174–178, 179
occupational exposure and illness, 6–9, 37, 97, 98, 160–161, 172–173, 201, 211
Oettingen, Wolfgang F. von, 8, 30–31, 48–50, 65–66, 156
oil sprays (paraffinic oils), 118, 200, 204, 207, 208
Oklahoma Experimental Station, 143
OMPA (Pestox III, Octamethyl Pyrophosphoramide), 95–96, 104, 106 100,000,000 Guinea Pigs: Dangers in Everyday Foods, Drugs, and Cosmetics (Kallet and Schlink), 10, 12, 17, 182
Oreskes, Naomi, 184–185
organochlorines. See chlorinated hydrocarbons
organophosphates (organic phosphates): AMA Committee on Pesticides’ recommendations, 102–103
amounts and types used, xi, xii, xiv, 200–206
as biocides, 219–220
and cancer, 209
Carson on, 159–161
children and, 211, 212
and chlorinated hydrocarbons trade-off, 140–141, 185–186, 187
and cholinesterase inhibition (see cholinesterase inhibition)
classification of, 105–106
compared to DDT, 99–101
Cook’s toxicity testing methodologies (FDA), 110–113
DuBois on toxicity of, 189–191
EPA cumulative risk assessment of (2006), 211, 213
high acute toxicity of, 98, 102, 171–172, 173–174, 187, 209, 219–220
hydrolization of, 102–103
Lehman’s (FDA) toxicity studies of, 99–101
neurotoxicity and chronic exposures, 92–98, 106, 107, 110–113, 159, 191, 209–210, 211, 212
and potentiation, 113–114, 172
as replacements for DDT, 188, 189–191, 216–217, 218–220
University of Chicago Toxicity Laboratory research (DuBois and colleagues), 92–96, 103–104, 105–106, 108–110
and wildlife, 161, 210–211. See also specific organophosphates
Our Children’s Toxic Legacy (Wargo), 211
oysters, 168
paired samples vs. random samples, 62
Palm, Charles E., 131–132
Paracelsus, xiii paraffinic oils (oil sprays), 118, 200, 204, 207, 208
paraoxon, 174
parathion (ethyl parathion): Carson on, 159–161
and cholinesterase inhibition, 95, 112–114
cumulative action of, 100
Delaney Hearings on use and toxicity of, 125–126, 144–146
DuBois and Coon on toxicity of, 105–106
environmental persistence, 165, 171
and food residues, 97–98, 102–103, 144–146, 159–160
Hazleton and Holland on toxicity of, 106–109
and houseflies, 196–197
Johns Hopkins University research on symptoms of exposure, 96–98
Lehman on toxic exposure levels,100, 99, 100, 101, 102–103
and milk contamination, 100, 112
occupational illnesses and deaths, 96–97, 98, 102, 173–174
as substitute for DDT, 190, 191
use of, 1966–1989, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204
use of, 1989–2002, 207, 208
and wildlife, 208
Paris green, 4, 5, 11
Patuxent Research Refuge wildlife studies, 59–61
Perkins, John, 39–40, 149
permethrin, 197
persistence, 196–197, 222
Pesticide Action Network, x
Pesticide Analytical Manual, 113
pesticide industry. See chemical industry
PFDA. See Pure Food and Drug Act (PFDA, 1906)
pharmaceutical regulation, 175–176
pharmacology, xiii, 25, 153, 154, 156, 179–180
phorate, 201, 202, 207, 208
phosphoramides, 105, 106
Plzak, Vivian, 89
potentiation/joint toxicity, 80–82, 83, 113–114, 160, 172, 180–181
precautionary principle, 55, 131, 147, 178
pregnancy, drug therapies and, 87
prenatal exposures, 212
President’s Science Advisory Committee (PSAC) report, 163–165, 171–172
primaquine, 79
Princi, Frank, 130–131
Proctor, Robert, 9, 138
protest registrations, 167–168
PSAC. See President’s Science Advisory Committee
public education, vi, xi, 157–188, 168, 170, 187–188
Public Health Service. See U. S. Public Health Service
Pure Food and Drug Act (PFDA, 1906): inadequacies of, 17–18, 31, 33, 35–36
passage, 1–2, 5
provisions, 5
pyrethrins, 101
pyrethroids, synthetic, 195–200. See also specific synthetic pyrethroids
pyrethrum, 4, 195
radioactive digitoxin, 85–89
radioactive nicotine, 85
radioisotopes, 84–89
Randolph, Theron G., 172
random samples vs. paired samples, 62
registration for a pesticide, ix, 117–121, 167–168, 191–194
resistance, 42–43, 44, 131–133, 198, 202
restricted use pesticides, 192
Ribicoff, Abraham, 166, 168–171, 174, 176–178, 184
Ribicoff subcommittee. See Subcommittee on Reorganization and International Organizations hearings on interagency coordination in environmental hazards (1963)
Richardson-Merrell Company, 175–176
risk assessment, xiii–xiv, 122, 163–165, 211, 217–220, 222–223. See also specific insecticides
Rockefeller Foundation, 41
Root, Mildred, 89
Rosner, David, 184–185
Ross, Benjamin, 138
rotenone, 101, 199
Rothamsted Experimental Station (England), 195–197
Ruckelshaus, William, ix, 189
Rudd, Robert, 157
Russell, Edmund, 69
Sanderson, E. Dwight, 5
Savannah River National Wildlife Refuge, 61–65
Schlink, F. J., 10, 12, 17
Schrader, Gerhard, 92, 95–96
Schueler, F. W., 82–83
Science, 142
scientific uncertainty, 121, 129–133, 148–149, 185, 222
Sellers, Christopher, 6, 7–8
S. E. Massengill Company, 19–26, 30–31
sensitization, 172, 181
Sevareid, Eric, 162–163
Sevin. See carbaryl Shaw, W. C., 139
Shell Chemical Company, 194
Shell Development Company, 177–178
Silent Spring (Carson): and American environmental movement, ix, x–xi, 212
and DDT (chlorinated hydrocarbons), 157–159, 161, 187–188
indictment of industry and government, xi–xii, 153, 182, 200
on limited use of pesticides, 161–162, 169, 200
on organophosphates, 159–161, 187, 219–220
overview, x, 157–162
response to, xii, 182, 186–188, 222–223
Sinclair, Upton, 1
Smith, Maurice, 15–16, 47–48
Smith, Russell, 119
Society of Toxicology, 156–157
soil contamination, 46, 125, 161, 165, 171, 200, 201
specificity concept
, 58, 100
Spendlove, George A., 123
Spurr, Charles, 83
state sovereignty, 118
Statesville Hospital malaria program, 78–80
Stickel, Lucille, 57
Stohlman, Edward F., 47–48
Stone, R. S., 84
Subcommittee on Reorganization and International Organizations. See Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards (Pesticides) Hearings
sulfanilamide, 18–19. See also Elixir Sulfanilamide
Surber, Eugene, 57–58
Swainson’s hawks, 210
synergism, 80–82, 89, 160, 165, 172
systemic insecticides, 95–96, 104, 201, 221–222
Tarzwell, Clarence M, 61–65
Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), 44–45
TEPP (Tetraethyl Pyrophosphate), 97, 99, 101, 102, 104, 105
terbufos, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208
termites, 42
Tetraethyl Pyrophosphate (TEPP), 97, 99, 101, 102, 104, 105
Texas Research Foundation, 133–135
Textbook of Toxicology (Geiling and DuBois), 154–155
thalidomide, 174–176
therapeutic index, 82–83
thiametoxam, 222
thionophosphates, 108–109
Thomas, C. A., 84
Throne, Binford, 11–12
Time, 38
tobacco, 42–43
TOCP (triorthocresyl phosphate), 14–18, 161
tomato-fruit worm outbreak (1945), 141
toxaphene, 200, 201, 202
toxicity: Cook’s testing methodologies, 110–113
dosage-mortality curve, 26–28
genetic effects vs, 169–170
LD50, 27–29
specificity concept, 58
“toxicity of natural products” defense, 178–179. See also acute vs. chronic toxicity
specific insecticides
toxicology, history of: consolidation of, as discipline, 153–157
creation of Institute of Toxicology, 179–180
DDT studies and, 70–71
Elixir Sulfanilamide investigation and, 23–29
first corporate laboratories, 8–9
genetic toxicology, 170
Hueper and, 8–9
and industrial hygiene, 6–7
industrialization and, 1–6
Society of Toxicology, 156–157
Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, journal, 155–156
University of Chicago Toxicity Laboratory and, 72–73, 89–90. See also environmental toxicology
Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 155–156
Tox Lab. See University of Chicago Toxicity Laboratory (Tox Lab)
Train, Russell, 194
Treichler, Ray, 56–57
triorthocresyl phosphate (TOCP), 14–18, 161
trypanosomes, 82–83
Tugwell, Rexford, 9, 12–13
typhus, 41–42
uncertainty. See scientific uncertainty Union Carbide, 109
United States Pharmacopoeia (USP), 13–14
University of Chicago Department of Pharmacology, 23–24, 73, 76
University of Chicago Toxicity Laboratory (Tox Lab): analysis of nitrogen mustards, 83–84
antimalarial drug therapies research program, 76–83
chemical warfare agent evaluations, 73–76
formation and development of, 72–73
organophosphate research, 92–96, 105–106, 108–110
radiation research, 153–154
radioisotope research, 84–89
U.S. Air Force Radiation Laboratory, 153–154
U.S. Army, 72, 96
U.S. Army Sanitary Corps, 41
U.S. Congress. See Delaney Hearings
Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards (Pesticides) Hearings (Subcommittee on Reorganization and International Organizations)
legislation
USDA: and administration of FIFRA, 117–121, 119–120
Bishopp (Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine) on risks of DDT, 139–145
chemical industry capture of, 146, 185
chlordane recommendations, 146
and cranberry scare, 150–151
criticism of Agricultural Research Service, 185
and DDT analysis, 40
and Delaney Hearings, 122
and FIFRA hearings, 116–117
and Insecticide Act of 1910 conflict of interest, 5–6, 25
recommendations on DDT use on/near dairy animals, 142–144
relationship to chemical companies, 146
“Use of Pesticides, The.” See President’s Science Advisory Committee (PSAC) report
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), 55–60
U.S. Public Health Service (PHS): and DDT toxicity to humans, 68–69
and examination of insecticides, 29
and ginger jake paralysis, 15–16
Hayes and Neal’s testimony at Delaney Hearings, 126–129
Savannah River National Wildlife Refuge DDT larvaciding studies, 61–65
Utah Department of Health, 123
velvetbean caterpillar outbreak (1946), 141
Vos, Bert, 105, 174
Wallace, Henry A., 32–33
Ward, J. C., 102–103
Wargo, John, xii, 120–121, 149, 150, 191–192, 193, 211
Watkins, Harold Cole, 19, 30–31, 32
Weigele, Carl E., 123
West, Irma, 172–173
Whitaker, Adelynne, 2, 5, 120
White-Stevens, Robert, 163
Whorton, James, 3–4, 11
Wiesner, Jerome, 163
wildlife: Carson on insecticides and, 159–162
and DDT ban, 212
Fish and Wildlife Service studies, 55–58
growing concerns about DDT and, 187–188
neonicitinoids and, 222
and organophosphates, 210–211
and parathion, 161
Patuxent Research Refuge studies, 59–61
President’s Science Advisory Committee recommendations regarding study of, 165
Savannah River National Wildlife Refuge studies, 61–65
Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) studies, 44–45
terbufos and chlorpyrifos and, 203
wild animal laboratory experiments, 55–58. See also birds
Wiley, Harvey, 5
Williams, Martin W., 156
Wolfe, Humphrey D., 8
Woodard, Geoffrey, 26, 29
workers. See occupational exposure and illness
World War II: chemical warfare research, 73–76
and malaria, 76–77
World Wildlife Fund, 209
Yamamoto, Izuru, 221
Zeidler, Othmar, 39
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