by David Boyle
225 “slight and gross merchandises”: See J. A. Williamson, The Cabot Voyages, p. 320.
226 another Friar Boyle: Ibid., p. 228.
226 “Your father loves you”: Quoted in H. Thomas, p. 102. This was how he always closed his letters to Diego.
227 The Niña had experienced: See S. E. Morison, Admiral of the Ocean Sea, pp. 511–12.
227 “God willing, you will try”: Quoted in F. Fernandez-Armesto, Columbus and the Conquest of the Impossible, p. 144.
228 “May our Lord guide me”: Quoted in Ibid., p. 166.
231 But then a chastened Thirkill: Bradley also returned safely: He was an interpreter to an English mission to Castile in 1503: See D. Quinn, England and the Discovery of America, p. 102n. But Alwyn Ruddock’s new evidence may provide a different interpretation of this—that they returned not in 1498, but with the other crews in 1500 (see p. 345).
231 “The king of England sent”: See G. E. Weare, pp. 159–60.
231 “I have seen the map”: Ibid., pp. 161–62.
233 “large mainland”: Quoted in H. Thomas, p. 199.
234 “Now I observed the very great variation”: Quoted in F. Fernandez-Armesto, Columbus on Himself, p. 158.
235 he was the “Christ-bearer”: Quoted in P. M. Watts, “Prophecy and Discovery: On the spiritual origins of Christopher Columbus’ enterprise of the Indies,” American Historical Review, Vol. 90, No. 1, Feb. 1985: 74.
235 Ojeda and the stolen map: That there is no direct evidence that Ojeda stole the map in this way, but nor is there any that he took a copy home with him, and it is unlikely that Columbus let the map out of his cabin.
236 Maiobanex held firm: See J. S. Collis, pp. 154–55.
237 “Even if they die now”: Quoted in F. Fernandez-Armesto, Columbus and the Conquest of the Impossible, p. 147.
237 “What power of mine”: Quoted in H. Thomas, p. 203.
238 The Great Chronicle of London: See J. A. Williamson, The Cabot Voyages, p. 220.
239 “where all women were communal”: See, for example, J. Perez de Tuleda Bueso.
240 “It was my intention”: Quoted in F. J. Pohl, p. 50.
241 The mild-mannered Vespucci and Ojeda: I am basing this on what we know of both their characters, and on Vespucci’s behavior since. Vespucci seems to have been very careful, once he had separated from Ojeda’s ships, to stay studiously apart from him afterward. In fact, Ojeda described Vespucci later as a “pilot” and it is not clear what his status was on the voyage, and whether he exaggerated it. See F. Fernandez-Armesto, Amerigo, pp. 66–71.
242 “We launched the boats”: From the letter to Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco, quoted in G. Masini, p. 12.
244 “Rationally, let it be said”: Quoted in F. J. Pohl, p. 81.
244 and lines from Dante’s Purgatory: Quoted in Ibid., p. 79. See also F. Fernandez Armesto, Amerigo, p. 78.
246 “We encountered an ocean current”: Quoted in F. J. Pohl, p. 78.
247 “They all go naked”: Quoted in Ibid., p. 83.
248 Vespucci turned north somewhere: Again this is controversial territory. Not all historians accept that Vespucci was telling the whole truth, since the reports are not confirmed by any other document, but the maps imply some support for his description. See F. Fernandez-Armesto, Amerigo, pp. 70–71.
250 “Our people here”: Quoted in F. Fernandez-Armesto, Columbus and the Conquest of the Impossible, p. 136.
252 On September 23, 1499: We know very little about Vespucci’s time there and why he seems to have stayed aloof from both sides—or indeed if he really did. But this explanation makes the most sense, given that, unlike Ojeda, he managed to keep his friendship with Columbus. He did clearly link up with Juan de la Cosa to discuss the famous map.
252 But longitude was a tougher proposition: There is still controversy about exactly how much of Vespucci’s claims are true. For a convincing explanation, including the idea that he borrowed Columbus’s earlier readings, see F. Fernandez-Armesto, Amerigo, pp. 77–85.
253 “In the endeavor”: F. J. Pohl, p. 94. The fact that Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco understood geography is from F. Fernandez-Armesto, p. 21.
256 He set sail in spring: See F. J. Pohl, p. 87.
257 but called the new land Labrador: See S. E. Morison, Portuguese Voyages to America in the Fifteenth Century, pp. 55–56.
261 When the rebel leaders: These revelations have been uncovered in the archives in Simancas by archivist Isabel Aquirre. See C. Varela, La Caida de Cristobal Colon.
262 As luck would have it: The evidence that the Columbus brothers planned to fight was collected by Bobadilla’s officials, revealed in documents only published in 2006. See ibid., pp. 69f.
8:THE FINISH LINE
265 Browsing in a Parisian: See J. A. Williamson, The Cabot Voyages, pp. 108–9.
265 Examining it more closely: See A. Davies, “The Last Voyage of John Cabot and the Rock at Grates Cave,” Nature, Vol. 176, November 25, 1955, p. 77. The original reference to the wording was in Cormack, W. Narrative of a Journey across the Island of Newfoundland (St. John: Morning Post, 1856), p. 77.
267 The second clue: See J. A. Williamson, The Cabot Voyages, pp. 109–10.
267 “It is certain”: F. de Navarette, Colección de los Viages y Descubrimientos, Vol. III (Madrid: Imprenta Real, 1829); quoted in I. Wilson, pp. 136–37.
269 At least one academic: See A. Davies.
270 the Newfoundland town of Carbonear: See J. A. Williamson, The Cabot Voyages, p. 93n.
272 “The Comendator Bobadilla”: Quoted in F. Fernandez-Armesto, Columbus on Himself, p. 194.
272 “Your imprisonment was very displeasing”: Quoted in B. Keen, p. 221.
274 These are all rather confusing stories: We know little about this strange meeting. There have been suggestions that the visitor was Giocondo, partly because he was also identified as Jocundus, the translator of Vespucci’s supposed book Mundus Novus (see F. A. Ober, Amerigo Vespucci, New York: Harper & Brother, 1907, pp. 198–99). Whether Marchionni really offered the chance to go on a voyage without any expectation of profit is still debatable. It may be that this is what Vespucci said, after the event, to justify his failure to produce any. The idea that they left by sea from Seville, by far the safest way if they wanted to escape detection, is mine.
275 “My going was taken amiss”: Quoted in G. R. Crone, p. 149.
275 He was a cousin: See M. Barreto, p. 150.
276 When Martin Frobisher: See S. E. Morison, The European Discovery of America:The Northern Voyages, p. 212.
277 “who rape or violate”: Quoted in J. A. Williamson, The Cabot Voyages, p. 252.
278 “Their manners and gestures”: Quoted in S. E. Morison, The European Discovery America:The Northern Voyages, pp. 215–56.
278 Cantino was posing: See S. E. Morison, The European Discovery of America: The Southern Voyages, pp. 272-73.
280 “This voyage which I am now making” Quoted in F. J. Pohl, p. 130.
280 The hopes of the local merchants: I am arguing that Bristol’s merchant community was divided, and had been since the secrecy of the voyages of 1480–81. Some were in on the secret of the Trinity’s discovery; those that were not backed Cabot. I am assuming here that this division continued, between the old guard who saw Fernandez as a way to claw back the ground lost to Cabot and his sons, and those who still had rights under Cabot’s patent of 1496.
280 another island—possibly Baffin: See J. A. Williamson, The Cabot Voyages, p. 216.
281 Elyot and Thorne, and Thorne’s son: I am extremely grateful to Dr. Evan Jones for pointing out this implication of Alwyn Ruddock’s research.
281 the 120-ton Gabriel: See A. A. Ruddock, “The reputation of Sebastian Cabot,” Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research, No. 47, 1974.
282 “Clothid in Beestes skynne”: Quoted in J. A. Williamson, The Cabot Voyages, pp. 220–23.
282 Robert Fabyan saw them again: See J. A. Williamson, The Cabot Voyages, p. 128
.
283 The only clue: See M. Barreto, pp. 150–52.
283 Coelho followed: There is some evidence about who commanded this expedition. Most academics agree that Vespucci was not in command, though he again clearly enjoyed some influence as a representative of the investors. See S. E. Morison, The European Discovery of America:The Southern Voyages, pp. 280–81.
284 “a new land”: Quoted in F. J. Pohl, p. 130.
284 “What shall we say”: Quoted in Ibid., p. 132.
284 “many of which are good to taste”: Quoted in ibid.
284 “Having no laws”: Quoted in Ibid., pp. 132–33. See the discussion about the accuracy of this description in F. Fernandez-Armesto, Amerigo, p. 154.
285 “They were very ugly”: Quoted in G. R. Crone, pp. 146–47.
286 “I fancied myself “: Quoted in F. J. Pohl, p. 132.
286 “I am like one of those followers”: Quoted in ibid., p. 135.
286 Coelho formally handed over: A fuller explanation of the name Cananor is in F. J. Pohl (p. 225), who suggests that Vespucci and Coelho exchanged formal command of the expedition at this point.
287 In fact, they had hit: If we believe Vespucci, he must have reached the Roaring Forties some time before getting as far south as he claimed, but some academics dispute that he got that far. See F. Fernandez-Armesto, Amerigo, p. 96.
287 “With much love”: Quoted in H. Thomas, p. 232.
290 “Was there a man born”: Quoted in F. Fernandez-Armesto, Columbus on Himself, p. 220.
291 the so-called Great Nugget: See B. de Las Casas, p. 20.
292 “I reached the region”: See also the translation in F. J. Pohl, p. 131.
293 “The ships were lying open”: See H. Thomas, p. 250, or for another translation, F. Fernandez-Armesto, Columbus on Himself, p. 221.
294 and weevils had been: See B. Keen, pp. 240–41.
294 “The colonial chief “Quoted in ibid., p. 244.
295 “Be not afraid”: Quoted in F. Fernandez-Armesto, Columbus on Himself, pp. 226-27.
295 “I am wholly ruined”: Quoted in K. Sale, p. 211.
296 “far more horrifying”: Quoted in J. Burchard, translated by Geoffrey Parker, At the Court of the Borgia, Folio Society, London, p. 225.
297 Maria Cerezo is a mysterious figure: See F. Fernandez-Armesto, Amerigo, pp. 55-56.
298 “Amerigo Vespucci will be arriving”: Quoted in F. Fernandez-Armesto, Amerigo, pp. 249-50.
305 “He has always been desirous”: Quoted in Ibid. There are clearly two views about Vespucci. The cynics might suggest that he was taking advantage of Columbus here, and that his visit to court was entirely about his own enrichment. We shall never know for certain, but Columbus believed in him, and there is no evidence that Vespucci was unworthy of his trust.
305 thinking about an appeal to the Pope: See Ibid., p. 209.
306 “Since it seems that his highness” Quoted in G. Granzotto, p. 271.
308 a small beer cellar: See Ibid., pp. 283–85.
9: NEW WORLD
310 “There are three stages”: A. Humboldt, Examen critique de l’histoire de la geographie du Nouveau Continent et des progress de l’astronomie nautique aux quinzieme et seizieme siecles. (Paris: Librairie de Gide, 1836–39).
310 “Had our father Adam”: Quoted in G. E. Weare, p. 111.
312 “We may rightly call them”: Quoted in F. Fernandez-Armesto, Amerigo, p. 147.
313 The Four Voyages of Amerigo Vespucci: Although the realization that the Soderini letter is a forgery, and Vespucci was not therefore claiming all four voyages, is a twentieth-century revelation, there does remain some doubt. The best argument lies in the first lines of the clearly genuine letter to Lorenzo the Popolano in 1500: “It is a long time since I have written to your excellency, and for no other reason that nothing has occurred to me worthy of being commemorated.” (See F. J. Pohl, p. 76.) If he had in fact been discovering Florida since 1497, he might have mentioned it.
313 “And if any invidious or malign person” Quoted in F. Fernandez-Armesto, Amerigo, p. 118.
316 had cannibalism, sex, and the thrilling hope: See J. F. Moffitt and S. Sebastian, pp. 145–58, and in F. Fernandez-Armesto, Amerigo, p. 169.
316 “They do not employ”: F. J. Pohl, p. 155.
318 Only one copy: This was found by Professor Josef Fischer when he was searching for information about Norse settlements in America. See J. Fischer and F. von Weiser.
319 the Soderini letter was written: The final nail in the coffin of the letter as a genuine composition by Vespucci was hammered in by A. Magngahi.
320 “I had a little nut tree”: Opie, Iona & Peter, The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes (London: Oxford University Press, 1975).
322 “No-one shall presume” Quoted in H. Thomas, pp. 312–33.
323 harvest the wild cats: See J. A. Williamson, The Cabot Voyages, p. 216.
326 “Diligent service”: Quoted in Ibid., p. 265.
329 Antonio de Montesinos: See H. Thomas, pp. 334–36.
330 His will set out: The will revealed that one of his household slaves was from the Canary Islands, and it has been suggested that her two children might have been Vespucci’s, but there is no evidence one way or the other: See C. Varela, Ingles en España y Portugal, p. 75.
331 Solís lasted less than: See S. E. Morison, The European Discovery of America: The Southern voyages, pp. 301–3.
331 Cuba had been conquered: See H. Thomas, pp. 357f. The story of the style of death chosen by their leader is in B. de las Casas, A Short Account of Destruction, p. 28.
336 “I believe that because of these impious”: Quoted in K. Sale, p. 158.
338 “He sayls not surely”: Quoted in S. E. Morison, The European Discovery of America: the northern voyages, p. 221.
340 “We cannot go back here”: Quoted in G. Masini, p. 36.
340 “I earnestly entreat you”: Quoted in J. A. Williamson, The Cabot Voyages, p. 151.
342 “The people of London”: Quinn (1974), 156.
342 a small ship on the Thames: See S. E. Morison, The European Discovery of America: the northern voyages, p. 222.
346 “Strange … that broad America”: R. W. Emerson, English Traits (London: Routledge & Co., 1856).
347 “As surely as Columbus pioneered”: E. Giuffrida, p. 88, from M. Harvey. “The Voyages and Discoveries of the Cabots,” Collections of the Nova Scotia Historical Society 1893–95: p. 17.
347 “Half of the world would belong”: Ibid., p. 125.
348 “Let us leave this cathedral”: E. W. Lennard, “John Cabot of Bristol,” United Empire, May–June, 1947.
10: THE MEANING OF THE NEW WORLD
350 an island called Utopia: See Logan, G. M., R. M. Adams, and C. H. Miller (eds), Utopia. Cambridge: Chatto & Windus, 1995. See also P. Ackroyd, The Life of Sir Thomas More, pp. 161–75.
352 One was that the idealization: See J. H. Elliott, pp. 26–27.
352 “License my roving hands”: This is John Donne’s Elegy XIX “To his mistress going to bed.”
353 “It is even a mortal question”: Quoted in K. Sale, p. 367.
354 a cargo of potatoes: See H. Hobhouse, pp. 191f. The French initially believed potatoes caused leprosy.
355 Aztecs selling cochineal: See A. B. Greenfield, p. 39–42
356 It was the gold and silver stolen: J. M. Keynes, “Economic Possibilities for Our Grandchildren,” Essays in Persuasion (London: Macmillan, 1931), p. 361–62.
361 “The idiocy of the man”: See Howitt, W. Colonization and Christianity (London, 1838), p. 504; quoted in T. J. Ellingson, pp. 225–26.
363 The adventurer Joshua Slocum: A. Macgillivray, p. 49.
364 “As soon as he got the hawk’s bell”: Quoted in A. Fernandez-Armesto, Amerigo, p. 165.
364 calling for a “chemical revolution”: H. Trevor-Roper, Renaissance Essays (London: Secker & Warburg, 1985), p. 149–99.
POSTCRIPT: STARS AND STRIPES
367 “If that Am
erico Vespusio”: Quoted in S. Subrahmanyam, p. 17.
367 “Then came a great shout: Quoted in S. Guenter, p. 15.
367 church restorer named Alfred Hudd: A. Hudd, “Richard Ameryk and the Name America,” Proceedings of the Clifton Antiquarian Club, Vol. VII, Part I, 1909–10: 1–9.
370 “after Sebastian Cabot”: L. Balderston, p. 26.
370 a local milliner named Margaret Manny: B. Tuchman, p. 45.
370 known as “John Company’s Gridiron: C. Fawcett, “The Striped Flag of the East India Company and its Connection with the American Stars and Stripes,” Mariner’s Mirror, Vol. XXIII, No. 4, October 1937.
370 attacking or resisting pirates: W. G. Perrin, p. 129.
370 In fact, striped ensigns: Bowles’Universal Display of the Naval Flags of the World, London: Bowles and Carver, 1790.
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
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———. London:The Biography. London: Chatto & Windus, 2000.
Arciniegas, A. V. German. Amerigo and the New World: The Life and Times of Amerigo
Vespucci. Trans Harriet de Onis. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1955.
Arthurson, Ian. The Perkin Warbeck Conspiracy 1491–1499. Stroud, UK: Alan Sutton, 1994.
Asua, Miguel de and Roger French. A New World of Animals: Early Modern Europeans on the Creatures of Iberian America. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2005.
Balderston, Lloyd. The Evolution of the American Flag. Philadelphia: Ferris & Leach, 1909.
Baring-Goald, S. Curious Myths of the Middle Ages. London: Rivingtons, 1872.
Baron, Hans. In Search of Florentine Humanism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988.
Barreto, Mascarenhas. The Portuguese Columbus: Secret Agent of King John II. Trans. R. A. Brown. Basingstoke UK: Macmillan, 1992.
Beazley, Charles R. John and Sebastian Cabot. London: Unwin, 1898.