by Visnu Sarma
5. An English version of Bidpai’s Fables, based upon Ancient Arabic and Spanish manuscripts; published by Juan de la Cuesta, Newark, Delaware, 1980.
6. It is conjectured that al-Muqaffa who rendered Burzoë’s Pehlevi version of the Panćatantra into Arabic (Kalilah wa Dimnah) in AD 750, also used an earlier Arabic version of the work by a Jew who knew both Sanskrit and Arabic.
7. It is suggested that the work was carried into Africa by Arab traders who were the great entrepreneurs of the early Middle Ages and that it (or stories from it) went with the slaves to America.
8. A History of Sanskrit Literature. OUP. 1928 ed. p. 359.
9. Op. cit. intro. p. vii.
10. Adopted later as a surname or family name, as Vājpeyi or Vājpayee; a modernized form, Bajpai, is also in use.
11. Epic is an English word used rather loosely to signify the literary genre that Sanskrit poetics describes as Mahākāvya (The Great Poem). The principles and classification, and the terminology used in Sanskrit poetics, are different from those in Western poetics. For instance, rigid distinctions are not made in Sanskrit poetics between fairy tale, folk-tale and fable.
12. In my childhood, storytelling sessions {Kathākālakṣepam and Harikathā) were fairly frequent and were held in a temple or in people’s houses. They have been revived of late, as part of literary conferences, for example.
13. We see this in our own times where contemporary artists in the oral tradition of storytelling, such as the fabulous Teejan Bai and Rekha Nishad, both from Madhya Pradesh, introduce little touches that bring the past and the present together—a word, a gesture, a topical allusion or reference to a current issue, sometimes political—into their narration of episodes from the Mahābhārata (known as Pandavani) or of ancient ballads. Sauli Mitra, another artist in the oral tradition who brings a fresh point of view, a ‘re-vision’, to her narration of the stripping of Draupadī in the Assembly Hall (Mahābhārata, Book II), questions the values of the patriarchal society of the epic. By inference the questioning. is addressed to contemporary society.
14. Franklin Edgerton attempts a re-construction of ‘the original’, in his The Panćatantra Reconstructed, in two volumes. (American Original Series, vol. Ill, New Haven, Connecticut 1920). But it is a hypothetical text; a construct.
15. This text derives from three earlier recensions of the Panćatantra that are designated as Tantrākhyāyikā, Simplicior, and an unknown (obviously lost and untraceable) recension. It is Hertel’s opinion that the first recension mentioned is closest to ‘the original’. Keith and Macdonell concur; Edgerton disagrees, though he acknowledges that the greater part is close to the original.
16. For example, M. R. Kale’s edition, reprinted many times (Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi). Unfortunately, Kale does not specify the recension/s on which his text is based.
17. ‘Simhasakāśe samupaviṣṭah Karaṭakah Damanakam prati abravit….’
18. Modern theatre in the West, stretches the limits of formal theatre: for example, Samuel Beckett’s Krapp’s Last Tape.
19. For example, Gilda in Verdi’s Rigoletto.
20. Amṛtamaya: Amṛtam signifies paradise and the drink of immortality, ambrosia. In mythology, gods and titans seeking immortality, churn the Milky Ocean for ambrosia.
21. This stanza is also found in Bhartṛhari’s nītiśataka. Who borrowed from whom, or whether both had a common source is difficult to tell.
22. I use the term Law (capital ‘L’) to signify the moral law and order of the universe as it is seen operating in creation; and law (small ‘l’) in the strictly legal sense.
23. Exegetical texts for the sacrificial ritual; composed around 900-800 BC.
24. The Great Tale, date uncertain, perhaps the AD first century.
25. Tantra has several meanings: text, a chapter of a text, a loom or frame.
26. Another name for Mahilāropya; pramadā and mahilā both mean young and beautiful women.
Preamble
1. Undying Energy.
2. Rich Energy; Fierce Energy; Endless Energy.
3. Sumati.
4. Indra, Lord of the Immortals.
Book I
1. Increase or Flourishing Prosperity.
2. Nandana; Sanjīvaka.
3. Piṅgalaka.
4. Bṛhaspati, the preceptor of the gods.
5. Hālāhala, the deadly poison that emerged when the Milky Ocean was churned at the beginning of Time and which Śiva swallowed to save the world.
6. Himālaya mountains.
7. Deva Śarma.
8. Āshāḍha bhūti: a name for the planet Mars; literally, born in June-July, i.e., late summer.
9. God’s gift.
10. The Sanskrit word for vyāsana has several meanings: distress, misfortune and evil practices.
11. Manda-Mati.
12. Viśvakarma—Divine Architect and framer of the Universe.
13. Paraśurama or Rāma-of-the-Axe who slew the whole lot of princes in revenge for the slaying of his father.
14. A fallacy in logic: because once a palm fruit fell down the moment a crow alighted on the palm tree it does not mean that the crow caused the fruit to fall.
15. Garuḍa, the golden eagle.
16. The Creator.
17. These are the five flowers of springtime: red lotus, aśoka and mango blossoms, jasmine and blue lily.
18. Eros or Cupid.
19. Excellences both physical and moral.
20. Kālidāsa: Śakuntalā 1.21.
21. A contract entered into by two persons in love, of their own free will, with mutual vows of fidelity; it is legal and carries the rights and responsibilities of marriage and the penalties for breaking the marriage vows, just as the sacramental marriage performed by the priest in an assembly of family, friends and relatives, before the sacred fire as witness does.
22. A literary convention; the depth of love and ardour of passion were believed to be indicated by bruised lips, nail marks on the limbs. It should not be construed as some form of sadistic enjoyment.
23. Vikramasenā; literally, the monarch with victorious armies.
24. A lakh is a hundred thousand.
25. Words such as kāla, kṛtānta, are used for both Time and Death.
26. The ancient Indian army was divided into four sections: elephants, chariots, horses and infantry.
27. The Cosmic Mountain, centre and support of the world.
28. Mother of Garuḍa, the golden eagle; she was rewarded by having her son chosen as Viṣṇu’s mount.
29. The three powers of the state are: the army, the treasury, and the council of ministers.
30. The Himālayas.
31. Yajna-datta: literally, ‘one who is preserved by sacrifice’.
32. A Brāhmana.
33. Modern Broach, a port city on the Rann of Kutch on the west coast, an arm of the Arabian sea.
34. The Sanskrit word guru refers to elders, apreceptor and a part1ceptor.
35. The three ends of life: the pursuit of virtue, wealth and love.
36. Mandasarpiṇī is slow-creeping.
37. Ćandarava.
38. Madarakta.
39. Sāgaradatta—literally, ‘ocean-part1served’.
40. Madotkata.
41. The Realm of Light, Heaven, Paradise.
42. God-Part1served.
43. Vimala.
44. That is, himself; he regards the lion as his brother.
45. In realpolitik, four expedients are available for princes: conciliation, bribes, intrigues and the last, war.
46. Uttānapāda—literally, ‘outstretched feet’.
47. Pativratā—‘the chaste wife’.
48. A bull elephant in rut is dangerous.
49. God of Death.
50. Death.
51. Probably refers to the Fire at the end of Time.
52. The zodiacal sign Libra.
53. Viṇārava.
54. Meghadūta.
55. Death: dissolution
of the cremated body into the five elements it is constituted of: Ether, Air, Fire, Water, Earth.
56. That is, they have to spend much time away from their nests, foraging.
57. Literally, ‘Dweller-in-the-Water’, i.e., the Waters of Creation; Nārāyana, Viṣṇu and many other words are epithets for the Supreme One.
58. Celestial City; City of the Gods.
59. Hyenas feed chiefly on carrion; the Sanskrit word is kravyamukha, literally, carrion-in-the-mouth.
60. Dharmarāja; Death, who is the upholder of Law, both moral and physical, of the universe.
61. That is, of eating before his master does.
62. The lion has to have his share of his kill first and takes the choicest parts.
63. That is, they belong to the same family and to eat the flesh of kin is taboo.
64. Or, ‘a forest tumultuous with fires blazing’.
65. Also known as KimŚuka; the flame-of-the-forest that blooms at the beginning of summer. The flowers appear before the leaves in clusters of big, brilliant, crimson blossoms, five-petalled with one forming a keel that resembles a parrot’s beak. Nectar-bearing, it attracts many birds, especially parrots.
66. Sāma, one of the four expedients of policy; the first and most esteemed.
67. Daṇda, war, the last and most extreme measure in realpolitik.
68. The four expedients stated in the maxim, sāma-dāna-bheda-danda; or peace (conciliation); bribes; intrigue; war.
69. Here, political acumen.
70. Here, machismo implied.
71. Words in Sanskrit signifying knowledge, wisdom, learning are mostly in the feminine gender.
72. This verse implies two things; the dangers that surround a king, especially if he is alone; that aspect of royalty as a focal point for social needs and forces.
73. Magnanimity, sagacity and so on, all royal virtues.
74. Conciliation, bribes, intrigue, war: sāma, dāna, bheda, daṇda.
75. Virtue, wealth, happiness.
76. The Impregnable.
77. Suratha.
78. Balabhadra: literally, blessed with strength.
79. Antahpura—Inner Apartments, the part of the palace reserved exclusively for the residence of the queens and princesses and their attendants.
80. The traditional greeting to a monarch.
81. Deva is a word with several meanings: god, child, fool; the phrase devanam priyah, ‘ beloved of gods’, also means a stupid idiot or prize-fool, the meaning implied in the context.
82. Literally, the Royal City, ancient capital of Magadha (modern Bihar); it was situated near Pāṭaliputra (modern Patna).
83. The first two lines of verse 376 may also be rendered as follows:
Time;, the Ender, determines the act;
And what will be will be;
84. Sūkta, this word can also refer to wise and pithy sayings.
85. Ketaki—Pandanus.
86. Āmalakā(Āmlā)—Myrobalan.
87. Āhāranirgamasthānam—literally, the place from which food is excreted.
88. Dharmabuddhi, Dustabuddhi
89. A dinara is variously computed in weight, but obviously it is a large gold coin.
90. Brahmahrdayam—literally, the heart of the world; i.e., gold.
91. The Sanskrit term, jihvādvayam, means ‘double-tongue’ or ‘forked tongue’.
92. Men possessing qualities of majesty, nobility, magnanimity and so on, attributed to lions.
93. The implication seems to be that Nāduka borrowed money for his business ventures from the guild-part1sident.
94. The traditional guest-offering consisted of a number of articles of welcome offered as part of hospitality: water to wash the face, hands and feet: a refreshing drink of blended milk, honey, curds, fruits, etc.
95. Negotiation and parleys; battle; logistics, consisting of the modes of advance, lying in wait (ambush), battle-formation; and alliances or coalitions.
96. Kubera, Lord of Yakshas.
97. Indra, Lord of the Immortals.
98. Or bias, or vested interests.
Book II
1. Laghupatanaka; literally, little one who flies and alights lightly.
2. (Ćitragrīva; literally, iridescent-necked.
3. Hiranya.
4. A yojana is equal to eight to ten miles.
5. The bright star Arcturus, in the constellation Boötes; a red giant.
6. One of the six systems of philosophy based on the exegesis of Vedic texts.
7. The first to write on prosody.
8. The great Titan, archetypal enemy of the gods.
9. Mother of the Titans.
10. An allusion to the seven steps taken round the sacred fire by bride and bridegroom that makes them comrades for life.
11. Literally, I lay my head on your lap.
12. An easy, even flight.
13. MaheŚvara—one of the many epithets given to Lord áiva.
14. Bootakarna.
15. Some monastic orders part1scribe this as a daily routine.
16. Crumbly, unrefined brown sugar.
17. Brhadsphik.
18. Or it could mean telling stories on religious themes.
19. A lady belonging to the Śāndilya clan.
20. Monks went into retreat for the rainy season; at other times of the year they travelled about.
21. Greed, avarice; the Sanskrit word trsnā means thirst, craving, lusting after things as well as desire in the sense of motivation.
22. A hill tribe who were hunter-gatherers.
23. Hunting; the chase is set down as one of the eight deadly sins; snaring birds is considered a sin.
24. Peacocks usually walk backwards, ‘When the young peacock, whose tail has not yet grown, has drunk water, he does not turn around but walks backwards just like an old bird. The latter must do so in order not to soil the feathers of his tail’–Buhler (cited by M. R. Kale) in his edition of the Panćatantra.
25. Empty ears of barley without the kernel inside the husk.
26. Vyartha, i.e., without wealth, also means, useless, unprofitable, insignificant.
27. Or Fate.
28. Exile; or, renunciation of the world, the third stage in the life prescribed in sacred texts and known as vānaprastha, the ascetic life.
29. The Himālayas.
30. Like a monk.
31. Literally, Gift of the Ocean.
32. Ćandramatī.
33. Brahmaghātaka; literally, ‘Brahmana-slayer’, held to be the most heinous crime.
34. Perdition, Hell.
35. One of the six recognized forms of marriage, entered into by mutual consent of a man and woman without sacramental rites; it was legal and binding.
36. The groom puts his right arm round the bride during some of the marriage rites, or, holds her right hand.
37. Tṛṣṇā (Desire) is in mythology, the daughter of Kāma (Eros, Love); but here it is inordinate desire: lust, passion, greed, that is castigated.
38. Viṣṇu contracted His enormous size that filled the three worlds, to that of a dwarf to trick the magnanimous Emperor Bali, to grant Him three feet of land.
39. Holy men belonging to certain sects on the fringe of ÷aivism, Kāpālikas and others carried around a half-skull as their almsbowl and ate out of it; they were not part of the mainstream of Śaiva faith.
40. In strictly legal terms, motive and proof.
41. Heaven, Earth, Underworld; or Air, Earth, Water.
42. Or, life’s vicissitudes.
43. The preceptor of the Immortals and epitome of intellect, wisdom and learning.
44. Literally, the tiny depression made by the hoof of a cow that fills with dirty water.
45. The Himalayas.
46. The man who will marry her.
47. That is, the Earth; Indian cosmography figures the landmass on the planet as seven enormous islands—saptadvipa.
48. His best is not good enough because of Fate, circumstance, what you will.
50. That is, whether he may use and enjoy the returns, or not.
51. Darbhā; spear-grass; its narrow leaves have sharp points.
52. A small shell used as currency.
53. Pralambavrsana, literally, Pendulous-Testicles.
54. Pralobhika.
55. The (Staka or crested-cuckoo is believed to subsist only on rain-drops; however thirsty it is firmly resolved not to drink any other water.
56. Indra, Lord of the Immortals, is the rain-god.
57. Mahouts train and direct an elephant by pricking the sensitive part of its ear with the sharp point of the goad.
58. The Himalayas.
59. Niyati, is the fixed order of things in the world.
60. The Sanskrit phrase is ‘Vidhinā likhitam lalāte yad’, meaning ‘the writing of Destiny on the brow’.
61. Ćitrānga—the spotted antelope.
62. Or from feigned anger.
63. Mitra is a friend.
Book III
1. These are the classic expedients of a policy laid down in texts on statecraft; these are meant for princes and others involved in government; they are sāma, dona, bheda, daṇda,(peace, bribes, discord, war).
2. Prithiviprathishttana.
3. Meghavarṇa.
4. Arimardana.
5. The expedients of policy: sandhi, vigraha, yāna, āsana, samsraya, dvaidhibhava.
6. Ujjīvi, Sanjīvi, Anujīvi, Prajīvi, ćranjīvi.
7. Negotiations, gifts and bribery, sowing dissention.
8. The fourth and final expedient is the use of force.
9. The Pāndava who went into exile and returned to fight and conquer. (Mahābhārata)
10. Catapults, battering rams, moving towers, etc.
11. Kokila or nightingales.
12. Ćātaka, also known as hawk-cuckoo.
13. Śyāmā.
14. Garuda, the golden eagle.
15. The Abhiṣeka.
16. Marked by the figure of a wheel.
17. A special collection of holy herbs used in consecrations.
18. The coronation of the owl as King of Birds: the details that follow are based mainly on details found in the Brahmana literature in the sections dealing with the Abhiṣeka rites of Indra and earthly kings such as Bharata, son of Śakuntalā, and the Rājasūya sacrifices of the Vedic age; for instance in the Aitareya Brāhmana,(Panćikā VIII Adhyāya II – Keith).
19. Ćakora.
20. Hārita.