58. Ranajit Guha, Elementary Aspects of Peasant Insurgency in Colonial India (Delhi:
Oxford, 1983).
59. Biswamoy Pati, “Introduction: the Nature of 1857,” in The 1857 Rebellion, ed.
Biswamoy Pati (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2007), xvii.
60. Ibid. Cf. Subhas Bhattacharya, “The Indigo Revolt of Bengal,” Social Scientist
5, no. 12 (July 1977), 13 – 23.
61. Ian Copland, The British Raj and the Indian Princes: Paramountcy in Western
India, 1857 – 1930 (Bombay: Orient Longman, 1982), 1.
NOTES TO PAGES 28–33
169
62. E.g., Majumdar, The Sepoy Mutiny and the Revolt of 1857 (Calcutta: Firma K. L.
Mukhopadhyay, 1957 (reprint 1963)).
63. Francesca H. Wilson, Rambles in Northern India. With Incidents and Descriptions
of Many Scenes of the Mutiny, Including Agra, Delhi, Lucknow, Cawnpore,
Allahabad, Etc. With Twelve Large Photographic Views. (London: Sampson Low,
Marston, Low, and Searle, 1876). Cf. Majumdar, The Sepoy Mutiny and the Revolt
of 1857, 192 – 225.
64. Many have written on women, gender, and the Rebellion. As examples: Alison
Blunt, “Embodying war: British women and domestic defilement in the
Indian ‘Mutiny’ 1857 – 8,” Journal Of Historical Geography 26, no. 3 (July
2000), 403 – 28; Penelope Tuson, “Mutiny narratives and the imperial
feminine: European Women’s Accounts of the Rebellion in India in 1857,”
Women’s Studies International Forum 21, no. 3 (1998), 291 – 303.
65. E.g., C. A. Bayly, Empire and Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social
Communication in India, 1780 – 1870 (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1996), 315 – 37.
66. Andrea Major and Crispin Bates, “Introduction: Fractured Narratives and
Marginal Experiences,” in Mutiny at the Margins: New Perspectives on the Indian
Uprising of 1857, vol. 2: Britain and the Indian Uprising, eds. Andrea Major and
Crispin Bates (London: Sage Publications, 2013), xvi.
67. Sarmistha De, “Marginal Whites and the Great Uprising: A Case Study of the
Bengal Presidency,” in Mutiny at the Margins: New Perspectives on the Indian
Uprising of 1857, vol. 2: Britain and the Indian Uprising, eds. Andrea Major and
Crispin Bates (London: Sage Publications, 2013), 166 – 7.
68. Arshad Islam, “The Backlash in Delhi: British Treatment of the Mughal Royal
Family following the Indian ‘Sepoy Mutiny’ of 1857,” Journal Of Muslim
Minority Affairs 31, no. 2 (June 2011), 197 – 215.
69. Meredith Townsend, The Annals of Indian Administration, Volume III (Serampore:
J. C. Murray, 1859), 129. Cf. Clare Anderson, The Indian Uprising of 1857– 8
Prisons, Prisoners, and Rebellion (London: Anthem Press, 2007), 132.
70. Andrea Major and Crispin Bates, “Introduction,” xvi – xvii.
71. E.g., Colonel G. B., C. S. I. Malleson, The Indian Mutiny of 1857 (London:
Seeley and Co., Limited, 1891), vii – ix.
72. E.g., T. R. Holmes, A History of the Indian Mutiny, 4th ed. (London: W. H.
Allen, 1904), 98.
73. Ibid., 34 – 5.
74. E.g., Sir George Forrest, A History of the Indian Mutiny: Reviewed And Illustrated
From Original Documents, vol. 1 (Edinburgh: W. Blackwood, 1904), 5; Syed
Ahmed Khan, The Causes of the Indian Revolt, in Urdoo, in 1858, and translated
into English by his two European friends (Benares: Benares Medical Hall Press,
1873), 0.4 (2).
75. Malleson, The Indian Mutiny of 1857, 38.
76. Majumdar, The Sepoy Mutiny and the Revolt of 1857, 76.
77. Malleson, The Indian Mutiny of 1857, viii.
170
NOTES TO PAGES 33–38
78. Malleson, The Indian Mutiny of 1857, 19.
79. Ibid., 20.
80. Ibid., 33.
81. E.g., Syed Ahmed Khan, The Causes of the Indian Revolt, in Urdoo, in 1858, and
translated into English by his two European friends (Benares: Benares Medical Hall
Press, 1873), 0.4 (2); Majumdar, The Sepoy Mutiny and the Revolt of 1857, 375;
Faisal Devji, “The Mutiny to Come,” New Literary History 40, no. 2, India and
the West (Spring 2009), 412 – 14; Benjamin Disraeli in Salahuddin Malik,
1857 War of Independence or Clash of Civilizations?, 64; Major and Bates,
“Introduction,” in Mutiny at the Margins, xvii.
82. Surendra Nath Sen, Eighteen Fifty-Seven (Delhi: Publications Division,
Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1957), 398 – 401.
NB: Passing chapatis was a common practice, and functioned similarly to
“chain letters;” however, while a number of commentators note an increase in
the appearance of chapatis near the beginning of the Great Rebellion, given
the system’s clandestine nature, perhaps, hard evidence that the one necessarily
indicates the other is lacking.
83. Peter Burke, “The ‘Discovery’ of Popular Culture,” in People’s History and
Socialist Theory, ed. Raphael Samuel (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1981),
218.
84. Malleson, The Indian Mutiny of 1857, 19.
85. John William Kaye, A History of the Sepoy War in India, 1857 – 58 (London:
W. H. Allen, 1880), 519.
86. W. H. Carey, The Mahomedan Rebellion; Its Premonitory Symptoms, the Outbreak
and Suppression; with an Appendix (Roorkee: The Directory Press, 1857).
87. Malik, 1857 War of Independence or Clash of Civilizations?, 113.
88. Carey, The Mahomedan Rebellion, 70 – 2.
89. W. H. Carey, The Mahomedan Rebellion; Its Premonitory Symptoms, the Outbreak
and Suppression; with an Appendix (Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publications, 2007
(reprint Roorkee: The Directory Press, 1857)), 9.
90. Ibid.
91. Ibid., 12.
92. Ibid., 10 – 12.
93. Ibid., 12.
94. Senzil Nawid, “The State, the Clergy, and British Imperial Policy in
Afghanistan during the 19th and Early 20th Centuries,” International Journal
of Middle East Studies 29, no. 4 (November 1997), 581 – 2.
95. Shah of Persia in Carey, The Mahomedan Rebellion, 11.
96. Ibid., 12 – 13.
97. Ibid., e.g., 70 – 2, 83, 85 – 7.
98. Malik, 1857 War of Independence or Clash of Civilizations?, 114 – 17.
99. Ibid., 115.
100. The Examiner, 1 August 1857. For similar opinions, Cf. Malleson, The Indian
Mutiny of 1857, 43; Sir Alfred Lyall, Race and Religion: An Address, May 5,
NOTES TO PAGES 38–43
171
1902, Reprinted from The Fortnightly Review, December 1902 (London: Social
and Political Education League, ND), 3, 11 – 14.
101. Malleson, The Indian Mutiny of 1857, viii – ix.
102. Maulvi Ahmadulla of Faizabad is discussed more fully in chapter 4.
103. Ibid., e.g., 33.
104. R. C. Majumdar efficiently contends that there is both a lack of reliable
evidence to demonstrate this and Malleson himself provided evidence that is
incongruous with his own conclusions. See: Majumdar, The Sepoy Mutiny and
the Revolt of 1857, 339.
105. Malleson, The Indian Mutiny of 1857, 17.
106. Ibid.
107. Ibid., 18 – 19, 27, 356.
108. Ibid., 114.
109. This is the thrust of her varied and celebrated career. See, as pertinent
examples: Romila Th
apar, “Imagined Religious Communities? Ancient
History and the Modern Search for a Hindu Identity,” Modern Asian Studies 23,
no. 2 (1989), 209 – 31; “Was there Historical Writing in early India?” in
Knowing India: Colonial and Modern Constructions of the Past, ed. Cynthia Talbot
(New Delhi: Yoda Press, 2011), 281 – 307.
110. Ibid., 170.
111. E.g., S. M. Azizuddin Husain, “1857 as Reflected in Persian and Urdu
Documents,” in Mutiny at the Margins: Volume VI: Perception, Narration and
Reinvention: The Pedagogy and Historiography of the Indian Uprising (New Delhi:
Sage Publications, 2014), 171.
112. Arshad Islam, “The Backlash in Delhi: British Treatment of the Mughal Royal
Family following the Indian ‘Sepoy Mutiny’ of 1857,” 197.
113. E.g., W. Carey, The Mahomedan Rebellion, 1 – 4.
114. Carey, The Mahomedan Rebellion, 249.
115. Malleson, The Indian Mutiny of 1857, 307.
116. Islam, “The Backlash in Delhi: British Treatment of the Mughal Royal
Family following the Indian ‘Sepoy Mutiny’ of 1857,” 199. Cf. Hasan
Nizami, “Delhi ki Jankani” (Delhi: Near to Death), in 1857 Majmuah
Khawaja Hasan Nizami, ed. Muhammad Ikram Chaghtai, “A Collection of
Essays by Khawaja Hasan Nizami,” (Lahore: Sang-e-Mel Publications,
2007), 496 – 7, 524.
117. E.g., Chidester, Empire of Religion, 26 – 8, 46 – 7, 48.
118. E.g., Jenny Berglund, “Princely Companion or Object of Offense? The Dog’s
Ambiguous Status in Islam,” Society & Animals 22, no. 6 (December 15, 2014),
545 – 59.
119. Bernard S. Cohn, An Anthropologist among the Historians and Other Essays,
with an introduction by Ranajit Guha (Delhi: Oxford University Press,
1987), 646.
120. G. C. Narang and Leslie Abel, “Ghalib and the Rebellion of 1857,” Mahfil 5,
no. 4, GHALIB ISSUE (1968 – 9), 46.
172
NOTES TO PAGES 43–47
121. E.g., ibid., 45, 51 – 3. Cf. Masood Ashraf Raja, “The Indian Rebellion of
1857 and Mirza Ghalib’s Narrative of Survival,” Prose Studies 31, no. 1
(2009), 40 – 54.
122. Ibid., 52. Cf. Mirza Asadullah Khan Ghalib, and Imtiya¯z ʻAlı¯ Kha¯ ʻArshı¯,
Maka¯tı¯b-i Gha¯lib (Ra¯mpu¯r: Ra¯mpu¯r Istat La¯ʼibrerı¯, 1949), 1, 8.
˙ ˙
123. Masood Ashraf Raja, “The Indian Rebellion of 1857 and Mirza Ghalib’s
Narrative of Survival,” 40.
124. Ghalib in G. C. Narang and Leslie Abel, “Ghalib and the Rebellion of 1857,”
53.
125. Mushirul Hasan, “The Legacies of 1857 among the Muslim Intelligentsia of
North India,” in Crispin Bates, ed., Mutiny at the Margins: New Perspectives on
the Indian Uprising of 1857 Vol. V: Muslim, Dalit and Subaltern Narratives (New
Delhi: Sage Publications, 2014), 108.
126. Avril A. Powell, “Questionable Loyalties: Muslim Government Servants and
Rebellion,” in Crispin Bates, ed., Mutiny at the Margins: New Perspectives on the
Indian Uprising of 1857 Vol. V: Muslim, Dalit and Subaltern Narratives (New
Delhi: Sage Publications, 2014), 84.
127. Ibid., 88.
128. E.g., Alan Guenther, “A Colonial Court Defines a Muslim,” in Islam in South
Asia in Practice, ed. Barbara D. Metcalf (Princeton: Princeton University Press,
2009), 293 – 304.
129. Husain, “1857 as Reflected in Persian and Urdu Documents,” 184.
130. G. C. Narang and Leslie Abel, “Ghalib and the Rebellion of 1857,” 47 – 51.
131. Husain, “1857 as Reflected in Persian and Urdu Documents,” 178.
132. Minutes of Evidence Taken Before the Select Committee of the Honourable House of
Commons, 278 – 81.
133. Ibid., e.g., 403 – 4, 408 – 9, 430.
134. Malcolm Lewin, Esq., ed., Causes of the Indian Revolt, by a Hindu Bengali
(London: Edward Stanford, 6, Charing Cross (October) 1857), 12.
135. During this period, a number of British scholars or agents of the Company
reported “authentic” accounts of “natives,” only later to be determined to have
been written by British authors in the guise of Hindus or Muslims. Famously,
Sir Alfred Lyall confessed to this type of writing. While I am not accusing
Lewin of the same, the edited treatise he presents closely follows the style and
assumptions of Lyall’s; it is merely worth noting that connection, the broader
context of the valuation of “authentic” reports, and a desire by some Britons to
critique British actions by way of native voices. See: Parveen Shaukat Ali,
Pillars of British Imperialism: A Case Study of the Political Ideas of Sir Alfred Lyall,
1873 – 1903 (Lahore: Aziz Publishers, 1976), 34.
136. Chidester, Empire of Religion, 1; Gottschalk, Religion, Science, and Empire, 7 – 9.
137. E.g., Minutes of Evidence Taken Before the Select Committee of the Honourable House
of Commons, appointed for the purpose of taking the examination of such Witnesses as
shall be ordered by the House to attend the Committee of the Whole House, on the
Affairs of the East-India Company, and to report the MINUTES of such Evidence
NOTES TO PAGES 47–51
173
from time to time (London: by order of the Court of Directors for the information
of the Proprietors, Cox and Son, 1813), 420 – 39.
138. Ibid., 522.
139. E.g., Abstract of the Minutes of Evidence Taken in the Honourable House of Commons
before a Committee of the Whole House to Consider the Affairs of the East India
Company, by the editor of the East India Debates (London: Black, Perry, and
Co., 1813), 9 – 11, 34.
140. E.g., Malleson, The Indian Mutiny of 1857, 15 – 16.
141. Bhagwan Josh, “V. D. Sarwarkar’s The Indian War of Independence: The First
Nationalist Reconstruction of the Revolt of 1857,” in Crispin Bates, ed.,
Mutiny at the Margins: New Perspectives on the Indian Uprising of 1857 Vol. VI:
Perception, Narration, and Reinvention: the Pedagogy and Historiography of the
Indian Uprising (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2014), 34 – 5.
Chapter 2
Suspect Subjects: Hunter and the Making of a
Muslim Minority
1. P. Hardy, The Muslims of British India (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University
Press, 1972), 62.
2. As but one example on the castes of Muslims, see: Imtiaz Ahmad, ed., Caste and
Social Stratification among the Muslims (Delhi: Manohar Book Service, 1973).
3. The Mughal Empire was an empire ruled by Muslims. I am careful not to
insist that the Mughal Empire was “Muslim rule,” since this implies a
contemporary notion of Islamic law governing all subjects. The Mughal
emperors had varying and complex relationships to networks of Muslim
authorities, including the ‘ulama and Sufi, especially Chishti, elite. Cf. Jamal
Malik, Islam in South Asia: A Short History (Leiden: Brill, 2008), especially
“Part II: Between Islamic and Islamicate,” pp. 85 – 213.
4. Many have discussed, defined, and redefined “minoritization.” A particularly
concise and productive definition appears in Wisdom Tettey, and Korbla
P. Puplampu, The African Diaspora in Canada: Negotiating Identity & Belonging
(Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 2005), 94.
5. E.g., Par
tha Chatterjee, Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World: A Derivative
Discourse? (London: Zed, 1986).
6. E.g., David Chidester, Empire of Religion, 45.
7. S. C. Mittal, India Distorted: A Study of British Historians on India (New Delhi:
M. D. Publications, 1996), 170.
8. Alex Padamsee, Representations of Indian Muslims in British Colonial Discourse
(New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 151.
9. Peter Gottschalk and Gabriel Greenberg, “Common Heritage, Uncommon
Fear: Islamophobia in the United States and British India, 1687 – 1947,” in ed.
Carl W. Ernst, Islamophobia in America: Anatomy of Intolerance (New York:
Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 32.
174
NOTES TO PAGES 51–54
10. E.g., W. A. Wilson, “The Situation in India,” in Islam and Missions: Being
Papers Read at the Second missionary Conference on Behalf of the Mohammedan World
at Lucknow, January 28 – 29, 1911 (New York, London: Fleming H. Revell,
1911). Permalink: http://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc2.ark:/13960/t6542ms59.
Accessed April 10, 2017.
11. I use scare quotes to mark Hunter’s use, and so retain his spelling of Wahabi,
instead of Wahhabi.
12. Hardy, The Muslims of British India, 62.
13. Thomas R. Metcalf, The Aftermath of Revolt: India 1857 – 1870 (Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press, 1965), 298.
14. William Muir, and T. H. Weir. The Life of Mohammad from Original Sources
˙
(London: Smith, 1878).
15. William Muir, The Caliphate; Its Rise, Decline, and Fall, from Original Sources,
2nd ed., Rev.; with Maps (London: Religious Tract Society, 1892).
16. Hardy, The Muslims of British India, 62.
17. William Muir, Records of the Intelligence Department of the North-West Provinces of
India during the Mutiny of 1857, vol. 1 (Edinburgh, 1902), 46.
18. William Muir, Records of the Intelligence Department of the North-West Provinces of
India during the Mutiny of 1857, vol. 2 (Edinburgh, 1902), 258.
19. Avril A. Powell, Scottish Orientalists and India: The Muir Brothers, Religion,
Education and Empire (Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press, 2010), 256.
20. Muhammad Bahadur Shah Zafar (r. 1837 – 57, d. 1862), also known popularly
as Bahadur Shah II, was the last Mughal emperor, though his reign was more
or less titular; the East India Company had long since assumed primary control
of South Asia, had imprisoned his father Akbar II, and had even given the
Indian Muslim Minorities and the 1857 Rebellion Page 27