Nonviolent Efforts to Promote Islam in the Contemporary World,” Nova Religio:
The Journal of Alternative and Emergent Religions 11, no. 2 (2007), 77 – 93.
83. Jalal, Partisans for Allah, 116.
NOTES TO PAGES 143–145
193
84. Colonel G. B. Malleson, C. S. I., The Indian Mutiny of 1857 (London: Seeley
and Co., Limited, 1891), 17.
85. As a reminder, the so-called chapati conspiracy refers to the passing of chapati
breads to signal the beginning of the revolts in northern India. See chapter 1
for a fuller discussion.
86. Saiyid Zaheer Husain Jafri, “The Profile of a Saintly Rebel: Maulvi
Ahmadullah Shah,” Social Scientist 26, no. 1/4 (1998), 40.
87. Salim al-Din Quraishi, ed. and comp., Cry for Freedom: Proclamations of Muslim
Revolutionaries of 1857 (Lahore: Sang-e-Meel, 1997), viii.
88. Faruqui Anjum Taban, “The Coming of the Revolt in Awadh: The Evidence of
Urdu Newspapers,” in Facets of the Great Revolt: 1857, Shireen Moosvi, ed.
(New Delhi: Tulika Books, 2008), 12.
89. Mushirul Haq, Shah Abdul Aziz: His Life and Times (Lahore: Institute of
Islamic Culture, 1995), 59. Cf. Jalal, Partisans of Allah, 122.
90. Jalal, Partisans of Allah, 122.
91. Fazl-i-Haqq wrote an account of the Great Rebellion from the penal colony.
In it, Fazl-i-Haqq both praised and critiqued other leaders, including
Ahmadullah. While the text, as we might expect, is written in rather coded
language, it does not state support for jihad, even by allusion. For a brief
commentary and translation, see: S. Moinul Haqq, “The Story of the War of
Independence by Allamah Fadl-i Haqq of Kharyabad,” Journal of the Pakistan
Historical Society 5, no. 1 (1957), 23 – 57.
92. R. A. Geaves, “India 1857: A Mutiny or a War of Independence? The Muslim
Perspective,” Islamic Studies 35, no. 1 (1996), 42. On Deoband, see Barbara
Metcalf’s definitive work, Islamic Revival in British India: Deoband, 1860 – 1900
(Princeton, N. J: Princeton University Press, 1982).
93. See: Salim al-Din Quraishi, Cry for Freedom: Proclamations of Muslim
Revolutionaries of 1857 (Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publications, 1997).
94. Taban, “The Coming of the Revolt in Awadh: The Evidence of Urdu
Newspapers,” 11 – 12.
95. Ibid., 13.
96. Ibid., 14.
97. Urdu and thus Urdu literacy were never solely limited to north Indian
Muslims. However, Urdu’s use in the nineteenth century was increasingly a
marker of an Indian Muslim identity. See: Christopher King, One Language,
Two Scripts: The Hindi Movement in Nineteenth Century North India (New Delhi:
Oxford University Press, 1994). On Syed Ahmad Khan’s role in the Urdu
movement: Abdul R. Khan, The All India Muslim Educational Conference: Its
Contribution to the Cultural Development of Indian Muslims, 1886 – 1947
(Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2001), especially chapter 6: “Promotion of
Urdu Language and Literature (1900 – 1945).”
98. Eric Stokes, The Peasant Armed: The Indian Revolt of 1857, ed. C. A. Bayly
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986).
99. E.g., Pernau, Ashraf to Middle Class, 223.
194
NOTES TO PAGES 145–149
100. Jivan Lal quoted in Pernau, 223. Cf. Jı¯vana La¯la, and Darak̲h̲sha¯n Ta¯jvar,
Sarguz̲asht-i Dihlı¯: Inqila¯b 1857 Kı¯ Kaha¯nı¯ Jı¯van La¯l Kı¯ Zaba¯nı¯ (Ra¯mpu¯r:
Ra¯mpu¯r Raza¯ La¯ʼibrerı¯, 2007).
101. Jalal, Partisans of Allah, 124.
102. Ibid.
103. As but one example, Sir Syed wrote about the discontent programs for orphans
caused in the wake of the devastating 1837 droughts, and suggested that these
orphans – reared “in principles of Christian faith” – were being secretly
converted from their natural religions. Khan, Causes of the Indian Revolt, 17.
104. E.g., Hunter, Indian Musalmans, 11.
105. Farzana Shaikh, Community and Consensus in Islam: Muslim Representation in
Colonial India, 1860 – 1947, Cambridge South Asian Studies 42 (New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1989), 79.
106. Jalal, Partisans of Allah, 1.
107. Ibid. Cf. Nizami, Muslim Political Thought and Activity in India during the
first half of the Nineteenth Century, 4. Khan mentions this as well: Review on
Dr Hunter, 11, 14 – 16.
108. Khan, Review, 14.
109. Ibid., 19. Hunter, Indian Musalmans, 29.
Conclusion
Religion, Rebels, and Jihad: Legacies and
Ongoing Impact
1. E.g., In honor of India’s Independence Day, Hindustan Times ran a piece
outlining the road to independence that began in August 1947 but traced
origins to 1857. Saudamini Jain, “At the stroke of the midnight hour: The story
of India’s independence,” August 11, 2015. http://www.hindustantimes.com/
india/at-the-stroke-of-the-midnight-hour-the-story-of-india-s-independence/
story-m6Lp74lEyp3WWJWeUTFnPM.html. Accessed March 29, 2016.
2. As examples: Farrukh Dhondy, et al. Mangal Pandey the rising (Mumbai: Yash
Raj Films, 2005); Shashi Kapoor, Shyam Benegal, Shabana Azmi, Jennifer
Kendal, Nafisa Ali, and Ruskin Bond, Junoon (Secaucus, NJ: Eros International
(distributor, 2000)); Ruskin Bond, A Flight of Pigeons (Bombay: IBH Pub. Co.,
1980); 1857 Kranti, 104 episodes, dir. Sanjay Khan (Numero Uno
International Limited, 2002); Javed Siddiqui, 1857: Ek Safarnama, 2008.
See also: Badri Narayan, “Popular Culture and 1857: A Memory Against
Forgetting,” Social Scientist 26, no. 1/4 (1998), 86 – 94.
3. As examples: J. G. Farrell, The Siege of Krishnapur (New York: Carroll & Graf,
1985 (orig. 1973; Booker Prize winner)); Mary Margaret Kaye, Shadow of the
Moon (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1979); John Masters, Nightrunners of
Bengal, a Novel (New York: Viking, 1951). See also: Albert D. Pionke, Plots of
Opportunity: Representing Conspiracy in Victorian England (Columbus: Ohio State
University Press, 2004).
NOTES TO PAGES 149–152
195
4. The Indian Constitution retains a number of laws from the colonial/imperial
period; recently, for example, Chapter XVI, Section 377 of the Indian Penal
Code has gained attention. Dating to 1860, it criminalizes sexual acts “against
the order of humanity,” largely interpreted as homosexual sex. In 2013, four
years after repealing this Section, the Indian Supreme Court reinstated it.
In February 2016, Reuters reported that: “Supreme Court on Tuesday said it
will review a decision over whether to uphold a colonial-era law that
criminalizes gay sex in a victory for homosexual rights campaigners at a time
when the nation is navigating a path between tradition and modernity.”
“Supreme Court will review law criminalizing homosexuality,” Reuters,
republished in Times of India, February 2, 2016. http://timesofindia.indiatim
es.com/india/Supreme-Court-will-review-law-criminalizing-homosexuality/
articleshow/50823515.cms. Accessed March 9, 2016.
5. As examples: Robert McLain, Gender and Violence in British India: The Road to
Amritsar, 1914 – 1919 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014); Elizabeth
Kolsky, Colonial Justice in British Ind
ia, Cambridge Studies in Indian History
and Society 17 (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge UP, 2010).
6. Dipesh Chakrabarty, “Remembering 1857: An Introductory Note,” Economic
and Political Weekly 42, no. 19 (May 12 – 18, 2007), 1692.
7. Ibid., 1693.
8. “Memorial to be set up in memory of 1857 mutiny martyrs,” The Hindu, May
11, 2015. http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/memori
al-to-be-set-up-in-memory-of-1857-mutiny-martyrs/article7191386.ece.
Accessed March 29, 2016.
9. Nile Green, Islam and the Army in Colonial India: Sepoy Religion in the Service of
Empire (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 67.
10. E.g., Vinayak D. Savarkar and G. M. Joshi, The Indian War of Independence,
1857 (Bombay: Phoenix Publications, 1947 [1909]).
11. Gottschalk, Religion, Science, and Empire, 1.
12. E.g., Christopher King, One Language, Two Scripts: The Hindi Movement in
Nineteenth Century North India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1994).
13. E.g., Balshastri Hardas, Armed Struggle for Freedom: Ninety Years War of Indian
Independence, 1857 to Subhash (Poona: KAL Prakashan, 1958).
14. E.g., Syed Sharifuddin Pirzada ed., Foundations of Pakistan: All-India Muslim
League Documents, 1906 – 1947. (Karachi: National Pub. House, 1969); Ayesha
Jalal, The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League, and the Demand for
Pakistan, Cambridge South Asian Studies 31 (Cambridge; New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1985).
15. E.g., David Page, Prelude to Partition: The Indian Muslims and the Imperial System
of Control, 1920 – 1932 (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1982).
16. E.g., Peter Van Der Veer, Religious Nationalism: Hindus and Muslims in India
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994).
17. Gyanendra Pandey, Hindus and Others: The Question of Identity in India Today
(New Delhi: Viking, 1993); Ornit Shani, “Conceptions of Citizenship in India
196
NOTES TO PAGES 152–159
and the ‘Muslim Question,’” Modern Asian Studies 44, no. 1 (2010), 145 – 73;
James Traub, “Is Modi’s India Safe for Muslims?” Foreign Policy, June 26, 2015.
http://foreignpolicy.com/2015/06/26/narendra-modi-india-safe-for-muslims
-hindu-nationalism-bjp-rss/. Accessed August 15, 2015.
18. Maidul Islam, “Rethinking the Muslim Question in Post-colonial India,”
Social Scientist 40, no. 7/8 (2012), 64.
19. E.g., “The states where cow slaughter is legal in India,” Indian Express, October
8, 2015. http://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-no-beef-nation/.
Accessed March 9, 2016.
20. Khan, Review, 23.
21. Ibid., 45.
Epilogue
1857 from Today’s Vermont
1. Ed Demaria, “Ben Carson Does Not Believe a Muslim Should Be President,”
via “Meet the Press,” NBC News. http://www.nbcnews.com/meet-the-press/
ben-carson-does-not-believe-muslim-should-be-president-n430431. Accessed
April 5, 2016.
2. Donald Trump interview with Anderson Cooper. Anderson Cooper 360,
March 9, 2016. CNN. Full transcript: http://www.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/
1603/09/acd.01.html. Accessed April 5, 2016.
3. President Bill Clinton, Democratic National Convention Speech for Hillary
Clinton’s Democratic Party Nomination, July 26, 2016. Full transcript:
http://www.politico.com/story/2016/07/full-text-bill-clinton-dnc-s
peech-226269#ixzz4OlQ2fQaD. Accessed November 1, 2016.
4. Ed Demaria, “Ben Carson Does Not Believe a Muslim Should Be President,”
via “Meet the Press,” NBC News. http://www.nbcnews.com/meet-the-press/
ben-carson-does-not-believe-muslim-should-be-president-n430431. Accessed
April 5, 2016.
5. Dr. Ben Carson’s public Facebook page, post dated September 21, 2015.
https://www.facebook.com/realbencarson/posts/532081783624959. Accessed
April 5, 2016.
6. Ibid.
7. The first amendment to the Constitution begins: “Congress shall make no law
respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise
thereof.” Further, Article VI of the Constitution states: “No religious Test
shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the
United States.” See: http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_
transcript.html. Accessed April 5, 2016.
8. Dr. Ben Carson and Candy Carson, A More Perfect Union: What We the People
Can Do to Reclaim Our Constitutional Liberties (New York: Sentinel, an imprint
of Penguin Random House LLC, 2015).
9. Juliagrace Brufke, “Ben Carson Doubles Down On Muslim In The White
House Comments,” The Daily Caller, September 22, 2015. http://dailycaller.
NOTES TO PAGES 159–160
197
com/2015/09/22/ben-carson-doubles-down-on-muslim-in-the-white-hous
e-comments/. Accessed April 5, 2016.
10. Donald Trump interview with Anderson Cooper. Anderson Cooper 360,
March 9, 2016. CNN. Full transcript: http://www.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/
1603/09/acd.01.html. Accessed April 5, 2016.
11. As examples, see: NBC News, “KKK leader disavows violent past, declares
Trump ‘best’ for president,” May 9, 2016. http://www.nbc12.com/story/
31846257/kkk-leader-disavows-violent-past-declares-trump-best-for-presi
dent. Accessed November 1, 2016; J. M. Berger, “How White Nationalists
Learned to Love Donald Trump,” Politico.com, October 25, 2016. http://www.
politico.com/magazine/story/2016/10/donald-trump-2016-white-nationalists
-alt-right-214388. Accessed November 1, 2016; and Mike Lofgren, “Trump,
Putin, and the Alt-Right International,” The Atlantic online, October 31, 2016.
http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2016/10/trump-putin-alt-
right-comintern/506015/. Accessed November 1, 2016.
12. E.g., Jeremy Diamond, “Muslim Trump supporter’s message amid ‘no Islam’
shout,” CNN.com, July 20, 2016. http://www.cnn.com/2016/07/20/politi
cs/american-muslim-for-trump-no-islam-response/. Accessed October 30,
2016 and “Watch: Rudy Giuliani addresses ‘Islamic extremist terrorism’ in
Republican National Convention speech,” LATimes.com (video recording).
July 18, 2016. http://www.latimes.com/politics/87898481-132.html. Accessed
November 1, 2016.
13. President Bill Clinton, 2016 Democratic National Convention Speech, http://
www.politico.com/story/2016/07/full-text-bill-clinton-dnc-speech-226269#
ixzz4OlQ2fQaD. Accessed November 1, 2016.
14. Edward E. Curtis IV, Muslims in America: A Short History (New York: Oxford
University Press, 2009), 4.
15. E.g., Pew Research Center, “Muslim Americans,” subsection “Islamic Affiliation
and Converts of Islam,” August 30, 2011. http://www.people-press.org/2011/
08/30/section-2-religious-beliefs-and-practices/#fn-20034306-2. Accessed
January 3, 2017. NB: While I point out white converts to Islam, the Pew
Report only indicates conversion statistics, with no reference to race: “Among
American Muslims, 20% are converts to Islam, saying they have not always been
Muslim.” For a comparative project on race and conversion, see: Juliette Galonnier,
“The Racialization of Muslims in Franc
e and the United States: Some Insights
from White Converts to Islam,” Social Compass 62, no. 4 (2015), 570–83.
16. E.g., Chris Cillizza, “This Khizr Khan Ad for Hillary Clinton is Incredibly
Powerful,” The Washington Post, October 21, 2016. https://www.washington-
post.com/news/the-fix/wp/2016/10/21/this-khizr-khan-ad-for-hillary-clinton-
is-incredibly-powerful/. Accessed November 1, 2016.
17. Ghazala Khan, “Trump criticized my silence. He knows nothing about
true sacrifice,” The Washington Post, op-ed, July 31, 2016. https://www.wa-
shingtonpost.com/opinions/ghazala-khan-donald-trump-criticized-my-
silence-he-knows-nothing-about-true-sacrifice/2016/07/31/c46e52ec-571c-
198
NOTES TO PAGES 160–162
11e6-831d-0324760ca856_story.html?utm_term¼.1c8eda7ab47a. Accessed October 30, 2016.
18. “Captain Khan,” Hillary Clinton campaign, October 21, 2016.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v¼WCqFCCgU1xk. Accessed November 1, 2016.
19. E.g., “Bans on Sharia and International Law,” American Civil Liberties Union,
https://www.aclu.org/bans-sharia-and-international-law. Accessed April 5,
2016.
20. “State Legislation Restricting Use of Foreign or Religious Law,” Pew Research
Center, April 8, 2013. http://features.pewforum.org/sharia-law-map/. Accessed
April 6, 2016.
21. E.g., “Shariah in American Courts: The Expanding Incursion of Islamic Law in
the U.S. Legal System,” January 5, 2015. http://www.centerforsecuritypolicy.
org/2015/01/05/shariah-in-american-courts-the-expanding-incursion-of-
islamic-law-in-the-u-s-legal-system/. Accessed April 5, 2016.
22. William Faulkner, Requiem for a Nun, Act I, Scene 3 (New York: Random
House, 1951).
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Indian Muslim Minorities and the 1857 Rebellion Page 31