2. W. Penfield, No Man Alone: A Neurosurgeon’s Life (Boston, MA: Little, Brown, 1977).
3. W. Penfield, “Oligodendroglia and Its Relation to Classical Neuroglia,” Brain 47 (1924): 430–52.
4. O. Foerster and W. Penfield, “The Structural Basis of Traumatic Epilepsy and Results of Radical Operation,” Brain 53 (1930): 99–119.
5. W. Penfield and M. Baldwin, “Temporal Lobe Seizures and the Technic of Subtotal Temporal Lobectomy,” Annals of Surgery 136 (1952): 625–34, available online at www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1803045/pdf/annsurg01421–0076.pdf (accessed November 2012); P. Robb, The Development of Neurology at McGill (Montreal: Osler Library, McGill University, 1989); W. Feindel et al., “Epilepsy Surgery: Historical Highlights 1909–2009,” Epilepsia 50 (2009): 131–51.
6. F. C. Bartlett, Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1932); C.W.M. Whitty and O. L. Zangwill, Amnesia (London: Butterworths, 1966).
7. Penfield and Milner, “Memory Deficit Produced by Bilateral Lesions in the Hippocampal Zone”; Milner, “The Memory Deficit Bilateral Hippocampal Lesions.”
8. Ibid; W. Penfield and H. Jasper, Epilepsy and the Functional Anatomy of the Human Brain (Boston: Little, Brown, 1954).
9. W. Penfield and G. Mathieson, “Memory: Autopsy Findings and Comments on the Role of Hippocampus in Experiential Recall,” Archives of Neurology 31 (1974): 145–54.
10. S. Demeter et al., “Interhemispheric Pathways of the Hippocampal Formation, Presubiculum, and Entorhinal and Posterior Parahippocampal Cortices in the Rhesus Monkey: The Structure and Organization of the Hippocampal Commissures,” Journal of Comparative Neurology 233 (1985): 30–47.
11. Penfield and Milner, “Memory Deficit Produced by Bilateral Lesions in the Hippocampal Zone”; Milner, “The Memory Deficit Bilateral Hippocampal Lesions.”
12. B. Milner and W. Penfield, “The Effect of Hippocampal Lesions on Recent Memory,” Transactions of the American Neurological Association (1955–1956): 42–48; W. B. Scoville and B. Milner, “Loss of Recent Memory after Bilateral Hippocampal Lesions,” Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 20 (1957): 11–21, available online at jnnp.bmj.com/content/20/1/11.short (accessed November 2012).
13. Scoville and Milner, “Loss of Recent Memory.”
14. W. B. Scoville, “The Limbic Lobe in Man,” Journal of Neurosurgery 11 (1954): 64–66; Scoville and Milner, 1957.
15. Scoville and Milner, “Loss of Recent Memory”; B. Milner, “Psychological Defects Produced by Temporal Lobe Excision,” Research Publications—Association for Research in Nervous and Mental Disease 36 (1958): 244–57.
16. Scoville and Milner, “Loss of Recent Memory.”
17. W. B. Scoville, “Amnesia after Bilateral Medial Temporal-Lobe Excision: Introduction to Case H.M.,” Neuropsychologia 6 (1968): 211–13; W. B. Scoville, “Innovations and Perspectives,” Surgical Neurology 4 (1975): 528–30; L. Dittrich, “The Brain that Changed Everything,” Esquire 154 (November 2010): 112–68.
18. B. Milner, “Intellectual Function of the Temporal Lobes,” Psychological Bulletin 51 (1954): 42–62.
19. W. Penfield and E. Boldrey, “Somatic Motor and Sensory Representation in the Cerebral Cortex of Man as Studied by Electrical Stimulation,” Brain 60 (1937): 389–443; W. Feindel and W. Penfield, “Localization of Discharge in Temporal Lobe Automatism,” Archives of Neurology & Psychiatry 72 (1954): 605–30; W. Penfield and L. Roberts, Speech and Brain-Mechanisms (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1959).
20. S. Corkin, “Tactually-Guided Maze Learning in Man: Effects of Unilateral Cortical Excisions and Bilateral Hippocampal Lesions,” Neuropsychologia 3 (1965): 339–51, available online at web.mit.edu/bnl/pdf/Corkin_1965.pdf (accessed November 2012).
Chapter Four: Thirty Seconds
1. D. O. Hebb, The Organization of Behavior: A Neuropsychological Theory (New York: Wiley, 1949).
2. S. R. Cajal, “La Fine Structure des Centres Nerveux,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 55 (1894): 444–68.
3. C. J. Shatz, “The Developing Brain,” Scientific American 267 (1992): 60–67; available online at cognitrn.psych.indiana.edu/busey/q551/PDFs/MindBrainCh2.pdf (accessed November 2012).
4. E. R. Kandel, “The Molecular Biology of Memory Storage: A Dialogue between Genes and Synapses,” Science 294 (2001): 1030–38; Kandel, In Search of Memory.
5. Hebb, The Organization of Behavior; Kandel, In Search of Memory.
6. L. Prisko, Short-Term Memory in Focal Cerebral Damage (unpublished dissertation; Montreal: McGill University, 1963).
7. E. K. Warrington et al., “The Anatomical Localisation of Selective Impairment of Auditory Verbal Short-Term Memory,” Neuropsychologia 9 (1971): 377–87.
8. Ibid.
9. N. Kanwisher, “Functional Specificity in the Human Brain: A Window into the Functional Architecture of the Mind,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 107 (2010): 11163–70.
10. E. K. Miller and J. D. Cohen, “An Integrative Theory of Prefrontal Cortex Function,” Annual Review of Neuroscience 24 (2001): 167–202; available online at web.mit.edu/ekmiller/Public/www/miller/Publications/Miller_Cohen_2001.pdf (accessed November 2012).
11. B. Milner, “Reflecting on the Field of Brain and Memory,” Lecture of November 18, 2008 (Washington, DC: Society for Neuroscience).
12. J. Brown, “Some Tests of the Decay Theory of Immediate Memory,” Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 10 (1958): 12–21.
13. L. R. Peterson and M. J. Peterson, “Short-Term Retention of Individual Verbal Items,” Journal of Experimental Psychology 58 (1959): 193–98; available online at hs-psychology.ism-online.org/files/2012/08/Peterson-Peterson-1959-duration-of-STM.pdf (accessed November 2012).
14. S. Corkin, “Some Relationships between Global Amnesias and the Memory Impairments in Alzheimer’s Disease,” in Alzheimer’s Disease: A Report of Progress in Research, ed. S. Corkin et al. (New York: Raven Press, 1982), 149–64.
15. B. Milner et al., “Further Analysis of the Hippocampal Amnesic Syndrome: 14-Year Follow-up Study of H.M.,” Neuropsychologia 6 (1968): 215–34.
16. B. Milner, “Effects of Different Brain Lesions on Card Sorting: The Role of the Frontal Lobes,” Archives of Neurology 9 (1963): 100–10.
17. A. Jeneson and L. R. Squire, “Working Memory, Long-Term Memory, and Medial Temporal Lobe Function,” Learning & Memory 19 (2012): 15–25.
18. N. Wiener, Cybernetics: or, Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1948).
19. G. A. Miller et al., Plans and the Structure of Behavior (New York: Holt, 1960).
20. R. C. Atkinson and R. M. Shiffrin, “Human Memory: A Proposed System and Its Control Processes,” in The Psychology of Learning and Motivation: Advances in Research and Theory, vol. 2, ed. K. W. Spence and J. T. Spence (New York: Academic Press, 1968), 89–195; available online at tinyurl.com/aa4w696 (accessed November 2012).
21. A. D. Baddeley and G.J.L. Hitch, “Working Memory,” in The Psychology of Learning and Motivation: Advances in Research and Theory, ed. G. H. Bower (New York: Academic Press, 1974), 47–89.
22. B. R. Postle, “Working Memory as an Emergent Property of the Mind and Brain,” Neuroscience 139 (2006): 23–38; M. D’Esposito, “From Cognitive to Neural Models of Working Memory,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences 362 (2007): 761–72; J. Jonides et al., “The Mind and Brain of Short-Term Memory,” Annual Review of Psychology 59 (2008): 193–224.
23. Miller and Cohen, “An Integrative Theory of Prefrontal Cortex Function,” Annual Review of Neuroscience 24 (2001): 167–202.
24. Ibid.
Chapter Five: Memories Are Made of This
1. Scoville’s notes and sketches were the basis of a set of detailed drawings by another neurosurgeon, Lamar Roberts, which accompanied Scoville and Milner’s 1957 paper.
2. P. C. Lauterbur, “Image Formation by Induced Local Interactions: Examples of Employing Nuclear Magnetic Resonance,” Nature 242 (1973): 1901; P. Mansfield and P.K. Grannell, “NMR ‘Diffraction’ in Solids?,” Journal of Physics C: Solid State Physics 6 (1973): L422.
3. S. Corkin et al., “H.M.’s Medial Temporal Lobe Lesion: Findings from MRI,” Journal of Neuroscience 17 (1997): 3964–79.
4. H. Eichenbaum, The Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory: An Introduction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011).
5. B. Milner et al., “Further Analysis of the Hippocampal Amnesic Syndrome: 14-Year Follow-up Study of H.M.,” Neuropsychologia 6 (1968): 215–34.
6. Ibid.
7. Corkin, “H.M.’s Medial Temporal Lobe Lesion.”
8. H. Eichenbaum et al., “Selective Olfactory Deficits in Case H.M.,” Brain 106 (1983): 459–72.
9. Ibid.
10. Ibid.
11. Ibid.
12. Henry’s impairment on the route-finding task, performed as a laboratory experiment, reinforced the theory introduced in John O’Keefe and Lynn Nadel’s classic 1978 book, The Hippocampus as a Cognitive Map (New York: Oxford University Press), which combined information from theoretical, behavioral, anatomical, and physiological sources to propose that the hippocampus oversees cognitive mapping and memory for spatial layouts and experiences moving in space.
13. B. Milner, “Visually-Guided Maze Learning in Man: Effects of Bilateral Hippocampal, Bilateral Frontal, and Unilateral Cerebral Lesions,” Neuropsychologia 3 (1965): 317–38.
14. S. Corkin, “Tactually-Guided Maze Learning in Man: Effects of Unilateral Cortical Excisions and Bilateral Hippocampal Lesions,” Neuropsychologia 3 (1965): 339–51.
15. S. Corkin, “What’s New with the Amnesic Patient H.M.?,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 3 (2002): 153–60.
16. S. Corkin et al., “H.M.’s Medial Temporal Lobe Lesion.”
17. V. D. Bohbot and S. Corkin, “Posterior Parahippocampal Place Learning in H.M.,” Hippocampus 17 (2007): 863–72.
18. Ibid.
Chapter Six: “An Argument with Myself”
1. J. D. Payne, “Learning, Memory, and Sleep in Humans,” Sleep Medicine Clinics 6 (2011): 15–30; R. Stickgold and M. Tucker, “Sleep and Memory: In Search of Functionality,” in Augmenting Cognition, eds, I. Segev et al. (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2011), 83–102.
2. P. Broca, “Sur la Circonvolution Limbique et la Scissure Limbique,” Bulletins de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris 12 (1877): 646–57; J. W. Papez, “A Proposed Mechanism of Emotion,” Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 38 (1937): 725–43.
3. Papez, “A Proposed Mechanism of Emotion”; J. Nolte and J. W. Sundsten, The Human Brain: An Introduction to Its Functional Anatomy (Philadelphia, PA: Mosby, 2009); K. A. Lindquist et al., “The Brain Basis of Emotion: A Meta-Analytic Review,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 35 (2012): 121–43.
4. P. Ekman, “Basic Emotions,” in Handbook of Cognition and Emotion, eds, T. Dalgleish et al. (New York: Wiley, 1999), 45–60.
5. E. A. Kensinger and S. Corkin, “Memory Enhancement for Emotional Words: Are Emotional Words More Vividly Remembered Than Neutral Words?,” Memory and Cognition 31 (2003): 1169–80; E. A. Kensinger and S. Corkin, “Two Routes to Emotional Memory: Distinct Neural Processes for Valence and Arousal,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 101 (2004): 3310–5.
Chapter Seven: Encode, Store, Retrieve
1. C. E. Shannon, “A Mathematical Theory of Communication,” Bell System Technical Journal 27 (1948): 379–423, 623–56; G. A. Miller, “The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information,” Psychological Review 63 (1956): 81–97.
2. A. S. Reber, “Implicit Learning of Artificial Grammars 1,” Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 6 (1967): 855–63; N. J. Cohen and L. R. Squire, “Preserved Learning and Retention of Pattern-Analyzing Skill in Amnesia: Dissociation of Knowing How and Knowing That,” Science 210 (1980): 207–10; L. R. Squire and S. Zola-Morgan, “Memory: Brain Systems and Behavior,” Trends in Neuroscience 11 (1988): 170–5.
3. F.I.M. Craik and R. S. Lockhart, “Levels of Processing: A Framework for Memory Research,” Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 11 (1972): 671–84; F.I.M. Craik and E. Tulving, “Depth of Processing and the Retention of Words in Episodic Memory,” Journal of Experimental Psychology 104 (1975): 268–94.
4. Ibid.
5. S. Corkin, “Some Relationships between Global Amnesias and the Memory Impairments in Alzheimer’s Disease,” in Alzheimer’s Disease: A Report of Progress in Research, eds, S. Corkin et al. (New York: Raven Press, 1982), 149–64.
6. Ibid.
7. Corkin, “Some Relationships”; K. Velanova et al., “Evidence for Frontally Mediated Controlled Processing Differences in Older Adults,” Cerebral Cortex 17 (2007): 1033–46.
8. R. L. Buckner and J. M. Logan, “Frontal Contributions to Episodic Memory Encoding in the Young and Elderly,” in The Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory, eds, A. Parker et al. (New York: Psychology Press, 2002), 59–81; U. Wagner et al., “Effects of Cortisol Suppression on Sleep-Associated Consolidation of Neutral and Emotional Memory,” Biological Psychiatry 58 (2005): 885–93.
9. J. A. Ogden, Trouble in Mind: Stories from a Neuropsychologist’s Casebook (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012).
10. J. D. Spence, The Memory Palace of Matteo Ricci (London: Quercus, 1978).
11. A. Raz et al., “A Slice of Pi: An Exploratory Neuroimaging Study of Digit Encoding and Retrieval in a Superior Memorist,” Neurocase 15 (2009): 361–72.
12. Raz, “A Slice of Pi”; K. A. Ericsson, “Exceptional Memorizers: Made, Not Born,” Trends in Cognitive Science 7 (2003): 233–5.
13. Buckner and Logan, “Frontal Contributions to Episodic Memory Encoding.”
14. H. A. Lechner et al., “100 Years of Consolidation—Remembering Müller and Pilzecker,” Learning Memory 6 (1999): 77–87.
15. Ibid.
16. Ibid.
17. C. P. Duncan, “The Retroactive Effect of Electroshock on Learning,” Journal of Comparative Psychology 42 (1949): 32–44; J. L. McGauch, “Memory—A Century of Consolidation,” Science 287 (2000): 248–51; S. J. Sara and B. Hars, “In Memory of Consolidation,” Learning and Memory 13 (2006): 515–21.
18. H. Eichenbaum, “Hippocampus: Cognitive Processes and Neural Representations That Underlie Declarative Memory,” Neuron 44 (2004): 109–20.
19. Eichenbaum, “Hippocampus”; D. Shohamy and A. D. Wagner, “Integrating Memories in the Human Brain: Hippocampal-Midbrain Encoding of Overlapping Events,” Neuron 60 (2008): 378–89.
20. W. B. Scoville and B. Milner, “Loss of Recent Memory after Bilateral Hippocampal Lesions,” Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 20 (1957): 11–21; B. Milner, “Psychological Defects Produced by Temporal Lobe Excision,” Research Publications—Association for Research in Nervous and Mental Disease 36 (1958): 244–57.
21. Ibid.; W. Penfield and B. Milner, “Memory Deficit Produced by Bilateral Lesians in the Hippocampal Zone,” A.M.A. Archives of Neurology & Psychiatry 79 (1950): 475–97. To examine the intricacies of the cognitive and neural processes that support each stage of memory in humans, neuroscientists have turned to experiments with a variety of animal species. These investigations have documented memory formation at several levels—improved memory performance, increase or decrease in the firing rate of neurons, and structural and functional modifications in cells and molecules. These alterations are all evidence of neural plasticity, the brain’s ability to change as a result of experience. The eventual goal of this ongoing research is to integrate knowledge from all levels to create a comprehensive description of how learning and memory come about.
Monkeys are animals of choice for insights about cognitive processes that are similar to those in humans. They can learn more complex tasks than rodents, especially when it comes to cognitive flexibility—the ability to
set goals and then execute the thoughts and actions to achieve them. But monkeys are expensive to house and require months of training because the cognitive tasks researchers want them to perform are so complex. As a result, rates and mice are widely used for memory research. Each species has its advantages. Mice are the ideal subjects when genetic models or manipulations are needed.
The seeds of gene targeting were sown in 1977, and the technology evolved to the point that it is now used in thousands of laboratories worldwide. In 2007, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Mario Capecchi, Sir Martin Evans, and Oliver Smithies “for their discoveries of principles for introducing specific gene modifications in mice by the use of embryonic stem cells.” This method can be used to knock out function in specific tissues in the mouse and in doing so replicate hundreds of human diseases. The advantage of mouse models is that they allow scientists to study diseases with greater precision than is possible in humans, with the hope of creating new therapies targeted to the underlying pathology. See Gene Targeting 1977–Present. Nobel Prize Lecture http://www.nobelprize.org:nobel_prizes:medicine:laureates:2007:capecchi-lecture.html.
Gene targeting in rats has not been possible until recently, but rats have been much more fully characterized in the laboratory in terms of their anatomy, physiology, and behavior, and their larger brains make recording from neurons in active animals easier. Much of neuroscience research uses both species in a complementary fashion to address unanswered questions. An interesting array of other species has been used for more specialized purposes—Zebra finches for the study of song learning, ferrets for their superb visual system, and even marine slugs, known as aplysia, for their enormous and easily accessible neurons.
The history of memory research is a synthesis of memory experiments from multiple species, each of which contributes critical advances along the way. Although countless questions remain unanswered, the past few decades have brought a dizzying amount of knowledge suggesting how a learning experience is transformed into lasting changes in brain circuits.
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