30. See tables and discussion in Dean R. Snow, The Archaeology of New England (New York: Academic Press, 1980), pp. 31–42. See also, William A. Starna, “Mohawk Iroquois Populations: A Revision,” Ethnohistory, 27 (1980), esp. 376–77. On the population of the Atlantic coastal plain, see Dobyns, Their Number Become Thinned, p. 41.
31. For recent comments on the debate, see Elisabeth Tooker, “The United States Constitution and the Iroquois League,” Ethnohistory, 35 (1988), 305–37; Bruce E. Johansen, “Native American Societies and the Evolution of Democracy in America,” Ethnohistory, 37 (1990), 279–90; Rejoinder to Johansen by Tooker, ibid., 291–97; and Bruce E. Johansen and Donald A. Grinde, Jr., “The Debate Regarding Native American Precedents for Democracy: A Recent Historiography,” American Indian Culture and Research Journal, 14 (1990), 61–88.
32. See, for a variety of approaches, William Brandon, New Worlds for Old: Reports from the New World and Their Effect on the Development of Social Thought in Europe, 1500–1800 (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1986); Germán Arciniegas, America in Europe: A History of the New World in Reverse, translated by Gabriela Arciniegas and R. Victoria Arana (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1986), esp. pp. 49–71; and Jack M. Weatherford, Indian Givers: The Continuing Impact of the Discovered Americas on the World (New York: Crown Publishers, 1988).
33. Quoted in Tooker, “United States Consitution and the Iroquois League,” 329.
34. Arthur C. Parker, The Constitution of the Five Nations (Albany: New York State Museum Bulletin, Number 184, 1916), p. 42.
35. Peggy Reeves Sanday, Female Power and Male Dominance: On the Origins of Sexual Inequality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), p. 28. For representative further discussion of female power among the Iroquois and other indigenous peoples of North America, see the following: Judith K. Brown, “Iroquois Women: An Ethnohistoric Note,” in Rayna Rapp Reiter, ed., Toward an Anthropology of Women (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1978), pp. 235–51; M. Kay Martin and Barbara Voorhies, Female of the Species (New York: Columbia University Press, 1975), esp. pp. 225–29; and Jean L. Briggs, “Eskimo Women: Makers of Men,” in Carolyn J. Matthiasson, ed., Many Sisters: Women in Cross-Cultural Perspective (New York: Macmillan, 1974), pp. 261–304.
36. Sanday, Female Power and Male Dominance, pp. 117–18. See also, John Witthoft, “Eastern Woodlands Community Typology and Acculturation,” in W. Fenton and J. Gulick, eds., Symposium on Cherokee and Iroquois Culture (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1961), pp. 67–76.
37. Pierre de Charlevoix, Journal of a Voyage to North America (London, 1761), excerpted in James Axtell, ed., The Indian Peoples of Eastern America: A Documentary History of the Sexes (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981), pp. 33–34.
38. Ibid., p. 34.
39. From Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, excerpted in Axtell, Indian Peoples of Eastern America, pp. 143–48.
40. Charlevoix, “Journal of a Voyage,” in Axtell, Indian Peoples of Eastern America, p. 153.
41. See, for example, the comments of one Englishman, who had ventured deep into the Shenandoah Valley, on the impressive “judgement and eloquence” of the Indian people he encountered: John Lederer, The Discoveries of John Lederer, in Three Several Marches from Virginia to the West of Carolina (London, 1672), p. 5.
42. Joseph Francois Lafiteau, Customs of the American Indians Compared with the Customs of Primitive Times, translated and edited by William N. Fenton and Elizabeth L. Moore (Toronto: The Champlain Society, 1977), Volume Two, p. 61. On the population of the southern Great Lakes area, see Dobyns, Their Number Become Thinned, p. 41.
43. Waldman, Atlas of the North American Indian, p. 223.
44. Robert Silverberg, Mound Builders of Ancient America: The Archaeology of a Myth (Greenwich, Conn.: New York Graphic Society, 1968), p. 312.
45. M.L. Gregg, “A Population Estimate for Cahokia,” in Perspectives in Cahokia Archaeology: Illinois Archaeological Survey Bulletin, 10 (1975), pp. 126–36; Fiedel, Prehistory of the Americas, p. 249.
46. Carl O. Sauer, “The March of Agriculture Across the Western World,” in Sauer, Selected Essays 1963–1975 (Berkeley: Turtle Island Foundation, 1981), pp. 46-47.
47. Russell Thornton, American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History Since 1492 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987), p. 32; Dobyns, Their Number Become Thinned, pp. 42, 298.
48. The best introduction to the formative village phase of pre-Olmec culture in the Valley of Oaxaca is Kent V. Flannery, ed., The Early Mesoamerican Village (New York: Academic Press, 1976). For early examples of different viewpoints regarding the Olmecs as the single initiators of Mesoamerican civilization, see Michael Coe, Mexico (New York: Praeger, 1962); and Kent V. Flannery, “The Olmec and the Valley of Oaxaca: A Model for Interregional Interaction in Formative Times,” in E.P. Benson, ed., Dumbarton Oaks Conference on the Olmec (Washington: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1968), pp. 79–110. There no longer is any doubt, however, that complex societies existed in southeastern Mesoamerica prior to the rise of Olmec civilization; see, for example, John E. Clark, “The Beginnings of Mesoamerica: Apologia for the Soconusco Early Formative,” and Michael Blake, “An Emerging Early Formative Chiefdom at Paso de la Amada,” both in William R. Fowler, Jr., ed., The Formation of Complex Society in Southeastern Mesoamerica (Boca Raton: CRC Press, 1991), pp. 13–26, 27–46.
49. Michael D. Coe, Mexico, revised and enlarged edition (London: Thames and Hudson, 1984), p. 68.
50. See René Millon, Urbanization at Teotihuacan, Mexico (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1973); George L. Cowgill, “Quantitative Studies of Urbanization at Teotihuacan,” in Norman Hammond, ed., Mesoamerican Archaeology: New Approaches (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1974), pp. 363–96.
51. Coe, Mexico, rev. ed., p. 93.
52. Ibid., p. 101.
53. This interpretation of Monte Albán’s political status remains controversial. See Richard E. Blanton, Monte Albán: Settlement Patterns at the Ancient Zapotec Capital (New York: Academic Press, 1978), and Gordon R. Willey, “The Concept of the ‘Disembedded Capital’ in Comparative Perspective,” journal of Anthropological Research, 35 (1979), 123–37.
54. S.A. Kowalewski, “Population-Resource Balances in Period I of Oaxaca, Mexico,” American Antiquity, 45 (1980), 151–65.
55. See Virginia Morell, “New Light on Writing in the Americas,” Science, 251 (1991), 268–70.
56. Sylvanus G. Morley, The Ancient Maya, Third Revised Edition (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1956); see discussion in Sherburne F. Cook and Woodrow Borah, “The Population of Yucatán,” in their Essays in Population History: Mexico and the Caribbean, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974), Volume Two, pp. 22–23.
57. On this, with particular reference to the city of Tikal, see William A. Haviland, “Tikal, Guatemala, and Mesoamerican Urbanism,” World Archaeology, 2 (1970), 186–97. On Tika’s reservoir system, see Vernon L. Scarborough and Gary G. Gallopin, “A Water Storage Adaptation in the Maya Lowlands,” Science, 251 (1991), 658–62. On population densities, see Robert S. Santley, Thomas W. Killion, and Mark T. Lycett, “On the Maya Collapse,” Journal of Anthropological Research, 42 (1986), 123–59.
58. T. Patrick Culbert, Laura J. Kosakowsky, Robert E. Fry, and William A. Haviland, “The Population of Tikal, Guatemala,” in T. Patrick Culbert and Don S. Rice, eds., Precolumbian Population History in the Maya Lowlands, (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1990), pp. 116–17. See also, in general, T. Patrick Culbert, Classic Maya Political History: Hieroglyphic and Archaeological Evidence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
59. Anthony Aveni, Empires of Time: Calendars, Clocks, and Cultures (New York: Basic Books, 1989), pp. 233–45.
60. Ibid., p. 252.
61. Linda Newson, The Cost of Conquest: Indian Decline in Honduras Under Spanish Rule (Boulder: Westview Press, 1986), p. 91.
62. Linda
A. Newson, Indian Survival in Colonial Nicaragua (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987), p. 88.
63. Cf. William M. Denevan, “Epilogue,” in William M. Denevan, ed., The Native Population of the Americas (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1976), p. 291; and Henry F. Dobyns, “Estimating Aboriginal American Population: An Appraisal of Techniques with a New Hemispheric Estimate,” Current Anthropology, 7 (1966), 415.
64. Evan S. Connell, A Long Desire (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979), p. 162.
65. Richard L. Burger, “Concluding Remarks,” in Christopher B. Donnan, ed., Early Ceremonial Architecture in the Andes (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1985), p. 273.
66. The earliest excavations and descriptions of El Paraíso were the work of F.A. Engel, “Le Complexe Preceramique d’El Paraíso (Perou),” Journal de la Societe des Americanistes, 55 (1966), 43—95; for the most recent work, see Jeffrey Quilter, Bernardino Ojeda E., Deborah M. Pearsall, Daniel H. Sandweiss, John G. Jones, and Elizabeth S. Wing, “Subsistence Economy of El Paraíso, an Early Peruvian Site”, Science, 251 (1991), 277–85.
67. On the languages of the Incas, both before and after the Spanish conquest, see Bruce Mannheim, The Language of the Inka Since the European Invasion (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1991).
68. On the desert etchings of the Nazca peoples the best discussions are in The Lines of Nazca, ed. Anthony Aveni (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1990). For an evocative description of one man’s encounter with a small scale North American example of this phenomenon, see Barry Lopez’s essay, “The Stone Horse,” in his Crossing Open Ground, pp. 1–17.
69. Pedro de Cieza de León, The Incas, translated by Harriet de Onis (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1959), p. 203.
70. John Hemming, The Conquest of the Incas (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1970), p. 121.
71. For this and more see the chapter on Cuzco in Hemming, Conquest of the Incas, pp. 118–36. Garcilaso de la Vega is quoted in Graziano Gasparini and Louise Margolies, Inca Architecture, translated by Patricia J. Lyon (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1980), p. 198.
72. Cook, Demographic Collapse, pp. 39, 219.
73. Ibid., p. 200.
74. Ibid.
75. Cieza de León, The Incas, p. 318.
76. Ibid., pp. 328, 305.
77. See John Hyslop, The Inka Road System (New York: Academic Press, 1984), pp. 323–31.
78. Pedro Sancho, Relation para S.M. de lo sucedido en la conquesta y pacification de estas provincias de la Nueva Castilla y de la calidad de la tierra, quoted (as is the preceding quotation from Pizarro) in Hemming, Conquest of the Incas, p. 101.
79. Ibid., pp. 123–24.
80. José de Acosta, Historia Natural y Moral de las Indias (Seville, 1590); cited in Brandon, New Worlds for Old, p. 12.
81. Sabine MacCormack, “Demons, Imagination, and the Incas,” Representations, 33 (1991), 134. For a concentrated look at the religious worlds of North America’s native peoples, showing how varied their spiritual lives were, while at the same time demonstrating how those lives were always logically connected with the specific nature of the immediately surrounding environment, see Ake Hultkrantz, Native Religions of North America: The Power of Visions and Fertility (New York: Harper & Row, 1987).
82. Quoted in Brandon, New Worlds for Old, p. 13.
83. John Hemming, Red Gold: The Conquest of the Brazilian Indians, 1500–1760 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978), p. 46.
84. Jean de Léry, Histoire d’un voyage faict en la terre du Bresil, autrement dite Amerique (La Rochelle, 1578); quoted in Brandon, New Worlds for Old, p. 13.
85. On the varied languages of the Amazonian peoples, see Doris L. Payne, ed., Amazonian Linguistics: Studies in Lowland South American Languages (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990). The discovery of 7000–to 8000–year-old pottery in the Amazon lowlands is discussed in A.C. Roosevelt, R.A. Housely, M. Imazio da Silveira, S. Maranca, and R. Johnson, “Eighth Millennium Pottery from a Prehistoric Shell Midden in the Brazilian Amazon,” Science, 254 (1991), 1621–24. For general discussion, see J. Brochado and D.W. Lathrap, Amazonia (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982); A.C. Roosevelt, The Developmental Sequence at Santarém on the Lower Amazon, Brazil (Washington, D.C.: National Endowment for the Humanities, 1990); and A.C. Roosevelt, Moundbuilders of the Amazon: Geophysical Archaeology on Marajo Island, Brazil (New York: Academic Press, 1991).
86. William Denevan has estimated the Amazon basin population at between 5.1 million and 6.8 million in “The Aboriginal Population of Amazonia,” in Denevan, ed., Native Population of the Americas, pp. 205–34; Clastres’s estimate for the Guaraní appears in his Society Against the State: The Leader as Servant and the Humane Uses of Power Among the Indians of the Americas (New York: Urizen Books, 1977), pp. 64–82.
87. Marshall Sahlins, “The Original Affluent Society,” in Sahlins, Stone Age Economics (London: Tavistock Publications, 1974), pp. 1–39.
88. Junius B. Bird, “The Archaeology of Patagonia,” in Handbook of South American Indians (Washington, D.G.: Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin Number 143, 1946), pp. 17–24.
89. On the Timucuan language evidence, see Joseph H. Greenberg, Language in the Americas (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988), pp. 106–7, 336.
90. Irving Rouse, “On the Meaning of the Term ‘Arawak’,” in Fred Olsen, On the Trail of the Arawaks (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1974), p. xv.
91. Bartolomé de las Casas, Apologetica historia de las Indias (Madrid: Marcelino Menendez y Pelayo, 1909), ch. 43; quoted in Carl Ortwin Sauer, The Early Spanish Main (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966), p. 63.
92. Sauer, Early Spanish Main, pp. 51–53.
93. Olsen, On the Trail of the Arawaks, p. 342.
94. Sauer, Early Spanish Main, pp. 58–59; Robert S. Weddle, Spanish Sea: The Gulf of Mexico in North American Discovery, 1500–1685 (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1985), p. 28.
95. Sauer, Early Spanish Main, p. 69.
96. J.H. Elliott, “The Discovery of America and the Discovery of Man,” Proceedings of the British Academy, 58 (1972), 119.
97. Quoted in Brandon, New Worlds for Old, p. 60.
98. Edmund S. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1975), p. 39.
99. Ibid., p. 40.
100. John C. Super, Food, Conquest, and Colonization in Sixteenth-Century Spanish America (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1988), pp. 79–88.
101. Quoted in John S. Milloy, The Plains Cree: Trade, Diplomacy, and War, 1790 to 1870 (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 1988), p. 71.
102. Jane E. Buikstra, ed., Prehistoric Tuberculosis in the Americas (Evanston: Northwestern University Archaeological Program, Scientific Papers Number 5, 1981), p. 18; Brenda J. Baker and George J. Armelagos, “The Origin and Antiquity of Syphilis,” Current Anthropology, 29 (1988), 703–20; but see also the commentaries following the Baker and Armelagos article and Henry F. Dobyns, “On Issues in Treponemal Epidemiology,” Current Anthropology, 30 (1989), 342–43.
103. See, for example, Mary Lucas Powell, Status and Health in Prehistory: A Case Study of the Moundville Chiefdom (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1988), pp. 152–82.
104. George W. Gill, “Human Skeletal Remains on the Northwestern Plains,” in George C. Frison, ed., Prehistoric Hunters of the High Plains, Second Edition (New York: Academic Press, 1991), pp. 442–43. An illustrative example of human longevity in this region is the Late Plains Archaic (approximately 1000 B.C. to 500 A.D.) skeleton of a man recently discovered at Iron Jaw Creek, Montana. Of greatly advanced years, having lost all his teeth long before his death and exhibiting a frame far too decrepit and infirm to have allowed him to contribute materially to the well-being of others in the community, he apparently was well cared for and fed a special soft diet to sustain him in h
is waning years. See George W. Gill and Gerald R. Clark, “A Late Plains Archaic Burial from Iron Jaw Creek, Southeastern Montana,” Plains Anthropologist, 28 (1983), 191–98; and George W. Gill, “Additional Comment and Illustration Relating to the Iron Jaw Skeleton,” Plains Anthropologist, 28 (1983), 335–36.
105. The only evidence at all suggestive that this picture of exceptionally good health might be flawed derives from paleodemographic analyses based on osteological studies of pre-Columbian Indian skeletons that have found a short life expectancy in certain locales—about the same life expectancy as that historically recorded for eighteenth-century Europeans. Analyses of this sort are fraught with difficulties, however, and they are at their weakest in determining age at death—where there is a strong methodological bias toward underestimation. Although not well known outside the discipline, this has been recognized within the field as a serious problem for almost 20 years. See Kenneth M. Weiss, Demographic Models for Anthropology (Society for American Archaeology Memoir Number 27, 1973), p. 59; and the devastating critique of the field on this and other points in Jean-Pierre Bocquet-Appel and Claude Masset, “Farewell to Paleodemography,” Journal of Human Evolution, 11 (1982), 321–33. Even the most ardent defenders of the field, subsequent to the critique by Bocquet-Appel and Masset, have conceded that the age estimates for older individuals studied by these techniques are invariably far too low. See, for example, Jane E. Buikstra and Lyle W. Koningsberg, “Paleodemography: Critiques and Controversies,” American Anthropologist, 87 (1985), 316–33.
Chapter Three
1. Andrew B. Appleby, “The Disappearance of Plague: A Continuing Puzzle,” The Economic History Review, Second Series, 33 (1980), 161–62.
2. R.P.R. Mols, “Population in Europe, 1500–1700,” in CM. Cipolla, ed., The Fontana Economic History of Europe (London: Fontana, 1973), p. 49.
3. J.H. Elliott, Imperial Spain, 1469–1716 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1964), p. 306.
4. David R. Weir, “Markets and Mortality in France, 1600–1789,” in John Walter and Roger Schofield, eds., Famine, Disease, and the Social Order in Early Modern Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), p. 229.
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