by Hugh Thomas
4. See p. 568ff. of Conquest.
5. See Anthony Pagden, Letters from Mexico (New Haven, 1986), 482, n. 119,
6. CDI, 26: 59. The Cédula of October 15, 1522, speaks of “las tierras y provincias de Aculuacán e San Xoan de Olua llamada La Nueva España.” Cortés wrote five letters to Charles V. The first, either lost or not yet found, was written in July 1519 in Veracruz; the second in “Segura de la Frontera” on October 30, 1520. The third, the longest, was completed in Coyoacán on October 15, 1522; the fourth and the fifth were written in Mexico-Tenochtitlan on October 15, 1524, and September 3, 1526, respectively.
7. See AGI Justicia, leg. 220, p. 2, f. 128.
8. CDI, 26: 65–70.
9. Ibid., 66.
10. CDI, 27: 65–70. Text also in CDIHE, 1: 97.
11. Martyr, De orbe novo, 406. The four men were to be paid: Estrada, 510,000 maravedís; Albornoz, 500,000; Almíndez de Chirino, 500,000; Salazar, 170,000 maravedís.
12. I wonder if this house has any connection with the old mansion shown nowadays to tourists as “the house of Cortés.”
13. Información de méritos y servicios de Alonso García Bravo, (Mexico 1956), 57.
14. Lucía Mier and Terán Rocha, La primera traza de la ciudad de México (Mexico, 1993), 1: 13ff.
15. Instruction of June 26, 1523, in José Luis Martínez, Documentos cortesianos, 1: 270.
16. Cited in Manuel Toussaint, “El criterio artístico de Hernán Cortés,” Estudios Americanos, no. 1, 62.
17. A vara was a measure of 835 millimeters and 9 décimas.
18. Motolinía, in Joaquín García Icazbalceta, Colección de documentos para la historia de México (Mexico, 1980), 1: 18.
19. Ibid., 19.
20. George Kubler and Martin Soria, Art and Architecture in Spain and Portugal and Their American Dominions (Harmondsworth, U.K., 1959), 70.
21. Martyr, De orbe novo, 418.
22. Ibid., 193, 358.
23. Josefina Muriel, Hospitales de la Nueva España (Mexico, 1956), 36.
24. Pagden, 280.
25. The wife of Amerigo Vespucci, María Cerezo, may have been a relation. For the family’s converso connections, see Juan Gil, Los conversos y la Inquisición Sevillana (Seville, 2000), 3: 500ff.
26. See Peter Gerhard’s splendid Geografía histórica de la Nueva España 1519–1821 (Mexico, 1986), 252, 254.
27. These understandings would be reflected in laws of July 12, 1530, cited in V. de Puga, Provisiones, cédulas, instrucciones para el gobierno de la Nueva España (Mexico, 1563); facsimile ed. (Madrid, 1945), fol. 45.
28. See Nicholas Crane’s Mercator: The Man who Mapped the Planet (London, 2002), 63.
CHAPTER 2. VALLADOLID, 1522
1. Eleanor Tremayne, The First Governess of the Netherlands (London, 1908), 217.
2. Memorias, Spanish Academy of History, vol. 6, inventory of plate and jewels presented to Margaret, April 3, 1497.
3. The site is now occupied by the Teatro Calderón. From a home of nobility to the stage would seem an agreeable translation for any building. On the main gate of the old house of the Enríquez there is the rhyme:
Viva el Rey con tal Victoria
Esta casa y su vecino
Queda es ella por memoria
La fama renombre y gloria,
Que por él a España vino
Año MDXXII Carlos
It is signed Almirante Don Fadrique, segundo de este nombre.
4. These designs have been admirably reproduced, with an introduction and essays on the places concerned, by Richard Kagan, ed., Ciudades del siglo de oro: Las vistas españolas de Anton van den Wyngaerde (Madrid, 1986).
5. Marquess originally meant someone who was a lord of some territory within the territory of the kingdom.
6. José García Mercadal, ed., Viajes de extranjeros por España y Portugal (Madrid, 1952), 455, tells us that there were thirty-nine religious houses in 1820 on the eve of dissolution. San Felipe Neri himself (1515–95) was in 1522 still a child in Florence!
7. See Joseph Pérez, “Moines frondeurs et sermons subversifs,” in Bulletin hispanique 67 (Jan.–June 1965).
8. Later used by the Banco Castellano.
9. Uncle of the inquisitor Fray Tomás. The cardinal was the greatest Spanish theologian of the century.
10. The counts of Oropesa were hereditary protectors of the Jeronymite monastery of Yuste, where Charles V went in 1556 to retire and die.
11. Huelga in the sixteenth century indicated not a strike, as it now does, but a fertile stretch of land.
12. On Berruguete, see Diego Angulo, Pedro Berruguete en Paredes de Nava (Barcelona, 1946) and Rafael Láinez Alcalá, Pedro Berruguete: Pintor de Castilla (Madrid, 1935).
13. On Navagero, see the Nota Preliminar in J. García Mercadal, 835. On Vital, see the same, 706.
14. Marcel Defourneaux, La vie quotidienne en Espagne au siècle d’or (Paris, 1964), 148.
15. These wonderful occasions are beautifully described in Bennassar’s admirable history, Valladolid au siècle d’or (Paris, 1967), especially 534.
16. See Inmaculada Arias de Saavedra, “Las universidades hispánicas durante el reinado de Carlos V,” in Martínez Millán, Carlos V y la quiebra, 3: 396.
17. “We don’t seek and we should not seek only the purity of Latin but the knowledge of many other things.” In M. Andrés, La teología española en el siglo (Madrid, 1977), 2: 48.
18. Letter of February 26, 1517, Erasmus to Wolfgang Fabricius Capite, quoted in J. Huizinga, The Waning of the Middle Ages (London, 1924), 31.
19. Marcel Bataillon, Erasmo y España (Mexico, 1950), 302.
20. Ibid., 484.
21. Bennassar, 116–19.
22. L. P. Harvey, Muslims in Spain 1500–1614 (Chicago, 2005), 112.
23. Kubler and Soria, 351.
24. Vigarny was supposed to have come from Burgos, but he may have originated in Burgundy.
25. For Carranza, see chapter 46–47.
26. María A. Sobaler, Los colegiales mayores de Santa Cruz: una élite de poder (Valladolid, 1988).
27. On Glapion, see Millán and Esquerra, La corte de Carlos V.
CHAPTER 3. CHARLES, KING AND EMPEROR
1. The only known men named Carlos in Spain in the sixteenth century, apart from the King, were Carlos de Viana, prince of Aragon; and Carlos de Valera, a captain in the Spanish-Portuguese war of the 1470s and the son of a converso historian, Diego de Valera.
2. The day of Saint Matthew was changed by the Council of Trent in the late sixteenth century.
3. As a child, she had been for a few years the first wife of King Charles VIII of France, till he announced that he preferred to marry, for dynastic reasons, the last duchess of Brittany. This crude rejection was the source of her dislike of France.
4. On Margaret, see Tremayne, The First Governess; Jean-Pierre Soisson, Marguerite Princesse de Bourgogne (Paris, 2002); and Dagmar Eichberger, ed., Women of Distinction (Leuven, 2005).
5. Tremayne, 154.
6. The founder was Geert Groote.
7. See Crane, 29.
8. See my Rivers of Gold (New York, 2003), 48.
9. Francesco Guicciardini, The History of Italy, Sidney Alexander (trans.) (New York, 1969), 330–31.
10. Quoted by Ludwig von Pastor in History of the Popes, Monsignor Ralph Kerr (trans.) (London, 1898), 9: 115.
11. Ibid., 128.
12. See Adrian’s letter to Charles from Saragossa, May 3, 1552, quoted in Tremayne, 193.
13. Pastor, 9: 226.
14. On Charles and Chièvres, see Karl Brandi, The emperor Charles V, C. V. Wedgwood (trans.) (London, 1949), 99.
15. Contarini, in García Mercadal, 393.
16. On Chièvres, see Manuel Giménez Fernandez, Bartolomé de las Casas (Seville, 1960), 2: passim.
17. Huizinga, Waning, 77.
18. On the family history, see P. Gargantilla Madera, “Historia clínic
a del Emperador,” in Martínez Millán, Carlos V y la quiebra, 4: 33ff.
19. Contarini, in Eugenio Alberi, Relazione degli ambasciatore veneti a Senato, series 1 (Florence, 1840), 2: 60ff.
20. Alonso de Santa Cruz, Crónica del emperador (Madrid, 1920), 1: 123.
21. A description by Lorenzo Pasqualingo, in Marino Sanuto, Diarii xx, 422; xxx, 324.
22. Santa Cruz, 2: 374.
23. In preface to the edition in Barcelona, 1987.
24. Brandi, 504. However, this affected him in 1541.
25. This paragraph is based on Brandi, 394.
26. Maximilian, quoted in Tremayne, 117.
27. Granvelle Papers (1534) 2: 124. The same in 1548, quoted in Federico Chabod, Carlos V y su imperio, Rodrigo Riza (trans.) (Madrid, 1992), 46. Like so much of old France, the chartreuse was ruined in the revolution, to no good end.
28. Monsignor Anglés, cited in Fernández Álvarez, Carlos V, 182. The clavichord had established itself in the fifteenth century as a small instrument for use in the home.
29. On Lannoy, see Martínez Millán, La corte, 3: 225ff. Lannoy was born in Valenciennes in 1482. He followed his father into working for the imperial family. He was with the archduke Philip before he worked with Charles as “supreme master of the horse.” He married Françoise de Montbel in 1510. He accompanied Charles to Spain in 1517 as chamberlain and member of Charles’s council. Lannoy, Hugo de Moncada, and Pescara were in favor of an agreement with France as opposed to a more belligerent line taken up by Gorrevod and Gattinara.
30. Alfred Morel-Fatio, Historiografie de Charles Quint (Paris, 1913), 154.
31. Santa Cruz, 2: 37–40.
32. Quentin Skinner, The Foundations of Modern Political Thought (Cambridge, U.K., 1978), 1: 24, 220, 221.
33. Philip was affected by this parental opinion.
34. On Gattinara, there is a fine study by J. M. Headley, The Emperor and His Chancellor (Cambridge, U.K., 1983). See also Martínez Millán, La corte, 3: 167ff.
35. Headley, 33. Manuel Rivero Rodríguez has a study of Gattinara’s autobiography written in the third person in his “Memoria, escritura y estado, la autobiografía de Mercurino Arborio de Gattinara,” in Martínez Millán, Carlos V y la quiebra, 1: 199ff.
36. Claretta, quoted in Headley, 41. Keniston thought the letter was not written until 1526. There are some stories in the memoirs of the Venetians Navagero and Contarini about angry exchanges between the Emperor and Gattinara in 1525.
37. R. Accacioli, in Desjardins 2: 861, quoted in Pastor, 10: 30–34.
38. Ibid., 46.
39. Manuel Fernández Álvarez, Carlos V, 287, 288.
40. The grant was for 154,000,000 maravedís, or 411,000 ducats. Valladolid in 1518 had granted 204,000,000 maravedís, or 545,000 ducats. Juan M. Carretero Zamora, “Liquidez, deuda y obtención de recursos extraordinarios,” in Martínez Millán, Carlos V y la quiebra, 4: 448.
41. See Joseph Pérez, Los comuneros (Madrid, 2001).
42. As “a Catholic King” of Spain. See Fernández Álvarez, Carlos V, 209.
43. Cited in Headley, Martínez Millán, Carlos V y la quiebra, 1: 8.
44. Oviedo, quoted in David Brading, The First America (Cambridge, U.K., 1991), 34.
45. In the second letter of relación of Cortés to Charles V, in Cortés. 159.
46. Letter of October 1524, in Pagden, Letters, 412.
47. “Se junten con V. sacra majestad en amistad y paz verdadera como monarca y señor del mundo para que sean en exterminar y perseguir los páganos y infieles.” Perhaps Cortés derived this notion from his own captain, Jerónimo Ruiz de la Mota, of Burgos, who was a cousin of that episcopal tutor of Charles’s who had talked of the matter in a speech at Corunna in 1520. His titles reflected this idea in their first line: “por la divina clemencia, emperador semper augusto.” Fernández Álvarez, Corpus documental de Carlos V (Salamanca, 1973–82), 1: 120 and 3: 304.
48. Question 2 of pequeño interrogatorio of Cortés’s residencia, in AGI, Justicia 221.
49. Guicciardini, 305.
50. Fernández Álvarez, Carlos V, 165.
51. Patinir began to paint about 1515 and would die in 1524. He painted Charon in 1520. See the catalog Patinir, Alejandro Vergara (Madrid, 2007), 161.
52. Fernández Álvarez, Carlos V, 374. See, too, the same author’s fascinating Sombras y luces en la España Imperial (Madrid, 2004), 185.
53. Pastor, 16: 355.
54. Brandi, 631. This was his fifth will, it appears.
55. Bucer, quoted in Brandi, 504. This was in 1541.
56. See Luciano Serrano, “Primeras negociaciones de Carlos V con la Santa Sede 1516–18,” in Cuadernos de trabajo, Spanish School of Archaeology and History in Rome (1914).
57. See Juan Gil, 1: 304.
58. See biography in Martínez Millán, La corte, 2: 225. Manrique de Lara lost much influence by defending Dr. Juan de Vergara of Toledo. He died in 1538, leaving four bastard sons, one of whom, Jerónimo, became inquisidor general at the end of the century.
59. See Lorenzo Vital, Relación del primer viaje de Carlos V a España, in J. García Mercadal, Viajes de extranjers por España y Portugal. 2: 711 (Madrid, 1952). See Fernández Álvarez, Carlos V, 97–99.
60. Fernández Álvarez, 264–69.
61. Ibid., 591.
CHAPTER 4. CHRISTIANITY AND THE NEW WORLD
1. Bernal Díaz del Castillo, Historia verdadera de la Nueva España (Madrid, 1982), 2: 141.
2. See Rivers of Gold, 129.
3. Ibid., chapter 4.
4. See Francisco de Solano, “El conquistador hispánico: señas de identidad” in Proceso histórico al conquistador (Madrid, 1988), 31.
5. The letter from Las Casas is in “Memorial de remedios para las Indias,” in Obras escogidas by Pérez de Tudela (Madrid, 1958), 5: 15. The text reads: “Thus I beg your most Reverend Lordship … that you send to these isles of the Indies the Holy Inquisition, of which I believe there is a great need, because wherever we have newly to plant the faith, as in those lands, to ensure that there is nobody who sows any seed of heresy since there such people have been found and two people have burned as heretics and there remain more than fourteen; and these Indians who are simple people and then believe what may be said by some malign and diabolic person who brings there their damnable doctrine and heretical iniquity. Because it could be that many heretics have fled there from these realms [Spain] thinking thus to save themselves.”
6. Bull of May 9, 1522, Exponi nobis fecisti.
7. Artes de México 19, no. 150 (Mexico, 1972).
8. Leopoldo de Austria, bishop of Córdoba, and Jorge de Austria, bishop of Liège. Both were born about 1505.
9. CDI, 13: 156.
10. I. A. Wright, The Early History of Cuba, 1492–1586 (New York, 1916), 155.
11. Marcel Bataillon, “Novo mundo e fim do mundo,” in Revista de historia 18 (São Paulo, 1954).
12. Fray Toribio de Motolinía, Memoriales o libro de las cosas de Nueva España (Mexico, 1971), 178.
13. Robert Ricard, La conquête spirituel du Mexique (Paris, 1933), 361.
14. Ibid., 365.
15. His evidence in AGI Justicia leg. 224 p. 1, f. 462–64, was on January 21, 1535. See R. E. Greenleaf, The Inquisition in New Spain (Oxford and London, 1969), who argued that the Inquisition was used against Cortés and his affiliates.
16. Ricard, Conquête spirituel, 136.
17. The history, written in 1541, was published as Historia de las Indias de Nueva España by García Iczabalceta, Colección de documentos.
18. Mexico would for the time being control Toluca, Michoacán, Jilotepec, and Tula; Texcoco would have authority over Otumba, Tepeapulco, Tulancingo; Tlaxcala would control Zacatlán, Jalapa, and Veracruz; and Huejotzingo would exercise authority over Cholula, Tepeaca, Tecamachalco, Tehuacan, Huaquechula, and Chietla. The last named is now the oldest monastery in the Americas.
19. Colloquios, quoted in my Conquest.
20. Ricard, Conquête s
pirituel, 49, 50.
21. Fray Tomás de Ortiz, quoted in Lewis Hanke, All Mankind Is One (DeKalb, 1974), 13.
22. See Horst Pietschmann, El estado y su evolución al principio de la colonización Española de América (Mexico, 1989), 108–109.
23. Peter Martyr, De orbe novo, 2: 275.
24. Pastor, 9: 92–93.
25. Ibid., 9: 175–76.
26. Ibid., 9: 135.
27. Ibid., 10: 253.
CHAPTER 5. CHARLES AT VALLADOLID, 1522–1523
1. This was the view of Fritz Walser, Die spanischen Zentralbehörden (Göttingen, 1959), 199–228, but opposed by Martínez Millán, in La corte, 1: 219. For this remarkable individual, see Rivers of Gold, 416ff.
2. Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo, Batallas y quincangenas: batalla prima (Madrid, 1983–2002), 1: 141. See, too, M. Laso de la Vega, Doña Mencía de Mendoza, Marquesa de Cenete 1508–1554 (Madrid, 1942).
3. See my Conquest, 341.
4. See Martínez Millán, La corte, 3: 350.
5. Martínez Millán, La corte, 3: 377. For the Ruiz de la Mota family, see John Schwaller, “Tres familias mexicanas del siglo XVI,” in Historia Mexicana (1981), 122, 178.
6. J. Zurita, Historia del rey don Hernando el Católico, p. 12 verso; quoted in Martínez Millán, La corte, 3: 264.
7. Hannart continued in the national service since, between 1531 and 1536, he was ambassador in France.
8. See Salustiano de Dios, El consejo real de Castilla (Madrid, 1982).
9. See for Rojas, Martínez Millán, La corte, 3: 369ff.
10. See Demetrio Ramos, El consejo de las Indias (Valladolid, 1970); and R. J. Dworski, “The Council of the Indies in Spain,” thesis, Columbia University, New York, 1979, 1433.
11. See Rivers of Gold, 120.
12. Ernst Schäfer, El consejo real y supremo de las Indias (Seville, 1935), 1: 47.
13. Perhaps because the papers of the Dominicans in San Esteban in Salamanca are not yet in the public domain.
14. Headley, 37.
15. See Luis G. A. Getino, Dominicos españoles confesores de reyes (Madrid, 1917), and A. López, “Confesores de la familia real de Castilla,” Archivo Ibero-Americano 31 (1929): 5–75.