by Hugh Thomas
CHAPTER 35. FEDERMANN AND JIMÉNEZ DE QUESADA
1. AGI Justicia, leg. 56.
2. Juan Friede, Vida y viajes de Nicolás Federmann (Bogotá, Colombia, 1964), 150.
3. Ibid., 58.
4. Oviedo, 3: 55.
5. See Kohler in British Museum, Additional Manuscripts, 217.
6. Letter of November 1, 1537, in AGI, Santo Domingo leg. 218, quoted in Friede, Federmann, 132.
7. Friede, Federmann, 159.
8. See ibid., 19. There is, however, no explicit mention of the family in Juan Gil’s great work on the conversos.
9. He had been adelantado in the Canaries. He was a nephew of the conqueror and first governor of La Palma and Tenerife, Alonso Fernández de Lugo. See Gil, Los Conversos, 4: 369, 371.
10. Céspedes was a converso and related to the onetime judge de las gradas in Seville of his name.
11. AGI, Justicia, leg. 599, no. 2, published in Friede, Federmann, 136ff.
12. See question 6 of Questionnaire in AGI, Escribanía de Cámara, leg. 1006-A Cuaderno 1, in Juan Friede, Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada (Bogotá, 1960), 168. Evidence about the death of Sagipa was given by six Spaniards, including two who “were there.”
13. Friede, Jiménez de Quesada, 323.
14. The text of the agreement of Federmann with Jiménez de Quesada is in AGI Justicia, leg. 1096, in Friede, Jiménez de Quesada, 128.
15. Friede, Jiménez de Quesada, 68–69.
16. Ibid., 304.
17. For Raizer, see Hermann Kellenbenz, Los Fugger, 115.
CHAPTER 36. THE RETURN OF CABEZA DE VACA
1. Nuñez, Castaways, 107.
2. Ibid., 117.
CHAPTER 37. SOTO IN NORTH AMERICA
1. A Gentleman of Elvas, True Relation of the Vicissitudes Which Attended Governor Hernando de Soto and Some Nobles of Portugal in the Discovery of the Province of Florida, trans. Buckingham Smith, Narratives of de Soto in the conquest of Florida (Gainesville, Fla., 1968), 136.
2. Garcilaso, 2: 1,110.
3. Wright, Early History, 234.
4. Las Casas, 2: 510. No sign remains of old Havana on the south coast.
5. Elvas, True Relation, 56; CDI, 3: 417.
6. Wright, Early History, 220–22.
7. See Duncan, Hernando de Soto, 243, for a discussion, and references to the work of Charles Hudson on the matter.
8. Oviedo, 2: 163; Wright, Early History, 170–71.
9. Duncan, 307.
10. Ibid., 355.
11. Ibid., 316.
12. Ibid., 318.
13. Oviedo, 2: 168.
14. Elvas, True Relation, 58.
15. See a fascinating discussion in Duncan, 352ff., as to where Coosa might be.
16. Elvas, True Relation, 229.
17. Ibid., 244.
18. Ibid., 246.
19. Ibid., 228.
20. Ibid., 167.
CHAPTER 38. THE MAGIC LURE OF THE NEW WORLD
1. Otte, Las Perlas, 209.
2. Friede, Welser, 376.
3. Ibid., 378.
4. Ibid., 380.
5. See E. Schmitt and F. K. von Hutten, eds., Das Gelt der Neuen Welt: Die Papiere des Welser-Konquistadors und General-Kapitans von Venezuela Philipp von Hutten 1534–1541 (Hildburghausen, 1996).
6. Aguado, History of Venezuela, 1: 262.
7. Otte, Las Perlas, 394.
8. Friede, Welser, 392–400.
9. Ibid., 405.
10. Ibid., 407.
11. Ibid., 406.
CHAPTER 39. BUENOS AIRES AND ASUNCIÓN: PEDRO DE MENDOZA AND CABEZA DE VACA
1. See my Rivers of Gold, 496, or for the scene on the river, see Casas, 3: 105.
2. The date usually given for his birth, 1487, cannot be correct since at that time Guadix was still part of the Muslim kingdom of Granada. Guadix fell to the Christians in 1489.
3. CDI, 23: 350ff. The capitulación is dated May 21, 1531.
4. Oviedo, 2: 364.
5. See Richard Hakluyt, The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the English Nation (London, 1599–1603), 3 vols., vol. 2.
6. CDI, 23: 8.
7. Nuñez, Castaways, 33.
8. Commentaries, 120.
9. Ibid., 115.
10. Nuñez, Castaways, 23.
11. Elman Service, Spanish-Guarani Relations in Early Colonial Paraguay (Westport, Conn., 1971), 19–20. The admirable Stanley Henig has a fine chapter on the size of the Guarani population “at contact” in his Numbers Never Lie.
CHAPTER 40. NEW SPAIN WITH ANTONIO DE MENDOZA
1. CDI, 23: 423ff.
2. Ibid., 554.
3. A mint antedated Mendoza’s arrival, because one was established for silver and copper coin in May 1535, under the direction of a formidable gathering of officials.
4. See A. González Palencia and E. Mele, Vida y obras de Don Diego Hurtado de Mendoza (3 vols. 1941; Madrid), also E. Spivakivsky, Son of the Alhambra (Austin, Tex., 1970). There is also A. Vazquez and R. S. Rose, Algunas cartas de don Diego Hurtado de Mendoza, escritas en 1538–1552 (New Haven, Conn., 1935).
5. Chipman, 237.
6. CDHI, 10: 38–43.
7. See my Conquest of Mexico, chapters 26 and 29.
8. Gerhard, Geografía, 303.
9. Bertrand Grunberg, L’univers des conquistadors (Paris, 1993), 121. The Franciscan mission in New Spain, hitherto part of the “province” of San Gabriel de Extremadura, became its own autonomous province of “the holy Evangelist.”
10. Salmerón had been much involved in the foundation of Puebla.
11. CDHI, 10: 10. See, too, L. B. Simpson, The Encomienda in New Spain (Berkeley, Calif., 1966), 125.
12. See the essays in Zavala, Recuerdo.
13. Like many letrados, Díaz de Luco was son of a curate, Cristóbal Díaz of Seville. He was provisor of Tavera at Toledo; he became known for his Doctrinae magistrales and Avisa de curas. He later became a Jesuit and was at the Council of Trent.
14. See the French translation of Guevara’s essay on Marcus Aurelius.
15. CDI, 13: 420–29.
16. CDI, 10: 363. “Con mucha causa y razón este de aca se llama Nuevo-Mundo y es lo ‘Nuevo-Mundo’ no porque se halló de nuevo, sinó porque es en gentes y cuasi en todo como fué aquel de la edad primera y de oro,” 1535.
17. See Gerhard, Geografía, 354.
18. See letter of Quiroga of August 14, 1531, to the Council of the Indies, in CDI, 13: 420.
19. CDI, 13: 428.
20. Ibid., 10: 376.
21. Zavala, Recuerdo, 90.
22. Schäfer, 2: 21. “Governors” of these subordinate territories were appointed by the Viceroy subject to approval of the Council of the Indies.
23. Haring, The Spanish Empire, 85.
24. CDIU, 10: 29ff. See François Chevalier, La formation des grands domaines du Méxique (Paris, 1952), 28.
25. Juan de Solorzano, Política Indiana (Madrid, 1996), Lib. 5, chapter 2.
26. Zavala, Recuerdo, 92.
27. Aiton, Antonio de Mendoza, 113.
28. Ricard, Spiritual Conquest, 37.
29. Pastor, 12: 297.
30. See my Quién es quién de los conquistadores, 259.
31. Ricard, Spiritual Conquest, 173.
32. “Destros son los Gilofos [Wolofs] y muy guerreros con vana presunción de caballeros.” Castellanos was a Sevillano, who went to live in Santiago de Tunja, Colombia, and whose best-known poem was his Elegías de varones ilustres de Indias, written in one hundred thousand verses, in 1589.
33. Baltasar Dorantes de Carranza, Sumario de relación de las cosas de la Nueva España (Mexico, 1970), 280; Gerhard, Geografía, 390.
34. Memorial of June 25, Documentos inéditos para la historia de España, 1: iv, 210.
35. Aiton, Mendoza, 139–41.
36. Fray Toribio de Motolinía, Historia de los Indios de la Nueva España, 179.
37. Ricard, Spiritual Conquest, 272.
38. Fray Antonio de Segovia, Fray Ma
rtín de Vera Cruz, Fray Martín de la Coruña, and Fray Pedro de la Concepción.
39. Ricard, Spiritual Conquest, 388.
40. Ibid., 388.
41. Arthur Aiton, The Secret Visita Against Viceroy Mendoza in New Spain and the American West 20, quoted in Hanke, The Spanish Struggle, 89.
42. Discussed in Martínez, Hernán Cortés.
43. Fernández Alvarez, Corpus documental, 3: 256.
44. CDI, 3: 510–11.
45. CDI, 14: 165–91. This is not much more than a log. But the name California is freely used, for example, “Domingo á 2 dias de julio, tuvieron visita en la California, tardaron en atravesar, por amor de los tiempos que no fueron muy favorables, casi cuatro días.”
46. Zavala, Recuerdo, 36.
CHAPTER 41. CORONADO AND THE SEVEN MAGIC CITIES OF CIBOLA
1. His instructions are in CDI, 3: 325ff.
2. Quoted in G. P. Winship, “The Coronado Expedition,” 24th annual report of the U.S. Bureau of Ethnology, 362, quoted in Aiton, Mendoza, 121.
3. Pedro de Castañeda, Spanish Explorers of the Southern United States (New York, 1907).
4. Coronado to Mendoza in Hakluyt’s voyages, 1st series, vol. 9, 145–69.
5. See Fray Marcos de Niza’s voyages as described in a letter by Viceroy Mendoza to the Emperor, April 17, 1540, in CDI, 2: 356.
6. CDI, 3: 511.
7. Castañeda, in Winship, 539.
8. Further testimony in CDI, 14: 304 (Jaramillo’s testimony), 373; and letter from Coronado to the Emperor in CDIHE, 3: 363.
9. Juan Suárez de Peralta, Tratado del descubrimiento de las Yndias y su conquista (Mexico, 1949), 159.
CHAPTER 42. MONTEJO AND ALVARADO IN YUCATÁN AND GUATEMALA
1. Álvaro de Paz, Información, in AGI Patronato, leg. 69, r. 1.
2. AGI Patronato, leg. 69, r. 1. “E oyo decir a el dicho adelantado que yba a China en cumplimiento de cierta capitulación que avia hecho en España con su majestad.”
3. Peralmíndez to Juan de Samano in Spain, July 28, 1541, in Paso, Cartas, 4: 25.
4. Aiton, Mendoza, 101.
5. Ricard, Spiritual Conquest, 193.
6. Probanza of Andrea del Castillo, AGI, Mexico, leg. 974.
7. AGI, Mexico, leg. 299.
8. Clendinnen, Ambivalent Conquests, 29.
9. Chamberlain, 206.
10. Clendinnen, Ambivalent Conquests, 204.
11. Diego Sánchez, probanza in AGI, Patronato, leg. 69, no. 8.
12. Cogulludo, Historia de Yucatán, 3–7, cited in Chamberlain, 216.
13. AGI, Mexico, leg. 900.
14. The Nahuatl for vasallo merely seems to signify “gente plebeya.” See Fray Alonso de Molina, Vocabulario en lengua castellana y mexicana, y mexicana y castellana, new ed. (Mexico, 1992), 116.
15. Relación de Valladolid, cited in Chamberlain, 231.
16. Clendinnen, Ambivalent Conquests, 43.
17. Ibid., 44.
18. Where he had been lodged by the Virreina María de Toledo, taking the ashes of her father-in-law, Christopher Columbus, to the cathedral there.
19. Paso, 4: 223.
20. See AGI, Mexico, leg. 68.
21. Probanza of Juana de Azamar in AGI, Mexico, leg. 983.
22. Ibid., leg. 923.
23. Letter of February 13, 1547, by Montejo to Charles V, quoted in Chamberlain, 252.
24. Residencia of Montejo in AGI, Justicia, leg. 244, r. 3.
25. Chamberlain, 126.
26. See méritos y servicios del gobernador y capitán general, don Francisco de Montejo, in AGI, Patronato leg. 63, r. 24, testimony of Andrea del Castillo: “Porque no menos conquistadora puedo decir que soy los conquistadores … muchas veces las mugeres principales y de mi calidiad quando se hallan presentes en las conquistas y guerras, los caballeros y soldados con su bista se esfuerzan y animan a senarse y bien obrar y a servir a sus Reyess y señores con más ánimo y valor.”
CHAPTER 43. LAS CASAS, POPE PAUL, AND THE INDIAN SOUL
1. Luis Iglesias Ortega, Bartolomé de Las Casas: Cuarenta y cuatro años infinitos (Seville, 2007), 362.
2. Antonio María Fabié, Vida y escritos de Bartolomé de las Casas (Madrid, 1879), 2: 60–82.
3. Oviedo, 1: 138. “No estuvo muy en gracia de todos en la estimativa … a causa de cierta regociación que emprendió.”
4. Carreño, “La imprenta y la inquisición en el siglo XVI,” in Estudios eruditos en memoriam de Adolfo Bonilla, y San Martín (Madrid, 1924), 1: 91.
5. Erasmus, Ecclesiastes, quoted in Bataillon, appendix to Erasmo, “Erasmus and the New World,” 807ff .
6. Getino, Dominicos españoles confesores de reyes, 28.
7. Bernard Lavallé, Bartolomé de las Casas (Paris, 2007), 128.
8. Guicciardini, 442.
9. Bataillon, Erasmo, 535.
10. Cuevas, 84. See Hanke’s “Pope Paul III and the American Indians,” in Harvard Theological Review XXX, 1937, 65–102; and Alberto de la Hera, “El derecho de los indios a la libertad y a la fe: La bula ‘Sublimis Deus’ y los problemas indianos que la motivaron,” Anuario de la historia del derecho español 26 (Madrid, 1956).
11. A ceremony in which the celebrant pronouncing the word ephphatha (“be opened”) (Mark 7:34), touches the mouths and ears of the candidate for baptism.
12. Ricard, Spiritual Conquest, 3: 93.
13. See Martínez Millán, La corte, 3: 477.
14. The meeting was also attended by Licenciado Pedro Mercado de Peñalosa, Dr. Hernando de Guevara, Dr. Juan de Figueroa, Licenciado Gregorio López, and Jacobo González de Arteaga of the Consejo de Órdenes. Perhaps there was also Licenciado Juan de Salmerón, fiscal of Castile.
15. Sahagún, quoted in Ricard, Spiritual Conquest, Sp ed., 226.
16. See AGI, Patronato, leg. 184, no. 27, cited in Jesús Bustamante Garcia, Carlos V y la Quiebra, 4: 15.
17. See AGI Patronato, leg. 184, r. 27, cited in Bustamante García in Carlos V, 4: 15.
18. Ibid., 19.
19. Ricard, Spiritual Conquest, 285.
20. This is the year that the historian of Colombia Juan Friede believed marked a change in Las Casas’s attitudes to the world from idealism to realism.
21. See Consuelo Varela’s introduction to the work of Las Casas, 23.
22. Cieza de León, quoted in Hanke, The Spanish Struggle, 90.
23. Cadenas, Carlos I, 131.
24. “… instruendi sint in mysteriis theologicis et artibus liberalibus.”
25. Cited in Hanke, All Mankind, 24.
26. Cited ibid., 58.
27. See my Rivers of Gold, 430.
28. See commentary of Consuelo Varela. He became Bishop of Chiapas in March 1544.
29. CDI, 16: 376ff. See Haring’s commentary in The Spanish Empire, 565ff.
30. CDI, quoted in Schäfer, 2: 245.
31. The expression is that of Schäfer.
32. Hanke, All Mankind, 60.
CHAPTER 44. CONTROVERSY AT VALLADOLID
1. See debate between Silvio Zavala and Benno Biermann in Historia mexicana. vols. 17–18, 1968–69.
2. This was the suggestion of Hanke in The Struggle, 46.
3. Found by Marcel Bataillon, in AGI, quoted in Hanke, All Mankind, 64–65.
4. CDI, 6: 484–515.
5. Quoted in Hanke, The Struggle, 116–17.
6. Díaz del Castillo, 2: 473.
7. That is, Cuba, Jamaica, La Española, Puerto Rico, Cubagua, and the coast of Venezuela as far as Santa Marta.
8. Letter of Gonzalo de Aranda to the King, May 30, 1544, in Aiton, Mendoza, 98.
9. Letter of Aranda, quoted in Aiton, Mendoza, 98.
10. CDI, 7: 532–42.
11. Letter to Charles V, February 19, 1545, in CDIU, 6: 241–46. The letter was signed by Vázquez de Tapia, Antonio de Carvajal, Jerónimo López. and even Gonzalo de Salazar, one of the officials sent in 1522 by the emperor Charles.
12. AGI, Indif. Gen., leg. 153ff, 783–85.
13. Letter from the audiencia,
March 17, 1545, quoted in Aiton, Mendoza, 99.
14. Henry Kamen, Philip of Spain (New Haven, Conn., 1997), 29.
15. Martínez Millán, La corte, 3: 379.
16. AGI, Indif. Gen., leg. 1530.
17. Martínez Millán, La corte, 3: 238–40.
18. Fernández Álvarez, Corpus documental, 2: 398. This was when Gasca was chosen.
19. Ibid., 399.
20. Wagner, 123, quoted in Hanke, All Mankind, 27.
21. CDI, 7: 436–37.
22. Ibid., 254–62. Letter of Motolinía to the King, January 2, 1555.
23. Aiton, Mendoza, 167.
24. On Cortés’s death, see my Conquest of Mexico, 600.
CHAPTER 45. LAS CASAS AND SEPÚLVEDA
1. It was four hundred years before the text of the disputation was published. Only in the 1950s did Stafford Poole transcribe the Latin text and translate it into English.
2. Did he say this? The text that Las Casas had when preparing his reply included this reference to monkeys. But the most complete version published omits it.
3. Quoted in Hanke, All Mankind, 85.
4. Burckhardt, Reflections, 38.
5. The original is in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris.
6. Text prepared and translated into English by Stafford Poole as “Defence Against the Persecutors and Slanderers of the People of New World Discovered Across the Seas.”
7. Hanke, All Mankind, 82.
8. Ibid., 94.
9. Ibid., 95.
10. Printed at Seville in 1552 and widely distributed in the Indies, even soon in Manila.
11. Schäfer summarizes, 2: 268–69.
12. Pastor, 20: 12.
13. Hanke, Aristotle, 40.
14. Consuelo Varela, Introducción, 26.
CHAPTER 46. THE KNIGHT OF THE BLACK EAGLE
1. The queen Empress Isabel had died after a miscarriage in May 1539.
2. Salinas, summer 1536, quoted in Rodriguez Villa, El emperador Carlos V y su corte.
3. See Woodrow Borah, The Cortés Codex of Vienna, vol. 2, The Americas, 1962.
4. Fernández Álvarez, Corpus documental, 3: 225.