resocialization of, see resocialization movement
rise in initiatives and publications focusing on struggles of, 18–19, 199–200, 201–3
self-esteem of, 101, 128, 129, 152, 232n
single-sex education of, 1, 2, 4–5, 81, 83, 85, 86, 88, 152–54, 171
specialized curricula and pedagogy geared to, 1, 4, 81, 88, 153, 154–56, 159, 171
“spread” phenomenon and, 15–16, 25, 168–69
“superpredator myth” of, 2, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53
suspension and expulsion rates of, 42, 47
violent behavior of, see violence vocational schooling of, 7–11, 33, 159
zero-tolerance policies as harmful to, 2, 46, 47, 48, 61, 62, 174, 190, 198
see also sex differences
Boys’ Achievement, Progress, Motivation and Participation (NFER report), 153–54
Boys & Girls Club of America, 191
Boys & Girls: Superheroes in the Doll Corner (Paley), 89–90
Boy Scouts of America, 64, 87
Boys: Getting It Right (Australian government report), 155
Boys Initiative, 199–200
Boys’ Reading Commission (Great Britain), 2, 154, 171
“Boys Will Be Boys” (Broude), 231n
Bradbury, Ray, 153
brain anatomy, sex differences in, 80–81
Brandeis University, 18, 22
Brawer, Barney, 121, 122, 134
Broca, Paul, 80–81
Brookings Institution, 30, 31, 33, 35, 120
Brooks, David, 159
Broude, Gwen, 231n
Brozo, William, 34
Bryant, Anne, 100, 102
Buddhists, 143
bullying, 55, 63, 188, 191, 194, 202
Bully Society, The (Klein), 59, 60
Burke, Edmund, 187
Burroway, Janet, 202
Burroway, Tim, 202
Bushman, Brad, 145
Bybee, Jane, 142
California, University of, 19
at Los Angeles (UCLA), 49, 157
at San Francisco (UCSF), 53
California Postsecondary Education Commission, 19–20, 35
“call-out” gap, 102, 210n, 227n
Canadian Council on Learning, 2
Can Boys Do Better? (British report), 152, 153
Capon, Paul, 2–3
Career Training Education (CTE), 160, 163, 164
see also vocational schools
Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Act, 163–64, 166, 171
Ceasefire (Young), 220n
Census Bureau, US, 23, 32, 120
Center for Gender Equity, 53
Center on Education Policy, 151
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, US, 45, 58, 60, 211n
Central High School, 40
Chapman, Steve, 214n
Character Counts Coalition, 190, 191
character education, 48, 63, 146, 173–74, 180, 182, 183–85, 188, 189, 200, 205, 238n, 240n
criticism of, 186–87, 195–96, 238n
mixed-results of, 192, 198
revival of, 190–98
see also morality, moral reasoning
Charalambous, Deno, 9, 10
Chicago, University of, 47, 48, 89, 138, 151, 240n
“child-centered” education model, 2, 149–50, 153, 182, 183, 184–85, 186
Child Development, 109, 142
Chira, Susan, 101
Chodorow, Nancy, 116–18, 129, 130
Christianity, 143–44
Christie, Zachary, 46, 47
Circle of Friends, 56
Civilization and Its Discontents (Freud), 232n–33n
Clackmannanshire, Scotland, 154–55
Clara Barton High School, 9
Claremont Academy, 82, 83, 84
Clark Atlanta University, 24
Cleveland Avenue Grammar School, 44
Clinton, Hillary, 82
“cognitive moral development,” 183
Cohen, Bruce, 132–33
Cole, Nancy, 15
college, 21, 48, 85, 166, 176
gender enrollment gaps in, 13, 14, 16–17, 17, 18, 22–23, 23, 24, 27–28, 29–30, 30, 31, 34, 35, 104, 213n
gender imbalances in, 18, 213n
College Board, 15, 24
Columbia Teachers College, 158
Columbine (Cullen), 188
Columbine High School massacre, 50, 127, 128, 133, 135, 187, 188–90, 238n
Comer, James, 47
competition, competitiveness, 3, 39, 62, 70, 118, 120, 123, 124
as absent in progressive models of education, 149, 150, 201–2
benefits and educational value of, 4, 44, 62, 81, 122, 150, 159, 171
movement to eliminate games of, 2, 40–41, 44, 55–56, 63, 201–2
conduct disorders, 63, 173, 184–85, 197
Confucianism, 143
congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), 67
Congress, US, 11, 16, 25, 29, 33, 56, 156
Congressional Quarterly Researcher, 50
cooperative learning, 41, 55–56, 150, 152, 157, 159
Cornell, Dewey, 50, 52
Cornwell, Christopher, 37–38
Creating Sex-Fair Family Day Care (Raines), 67–68, 222n
criminal behavior, 51, 136, 173, 176, 177, 179, 181, 238n
conduct disorders as risk factor in, 63, 173
in girls, 135
lack of moral education and discipline tied to, 173–74, 176, 177, 178, 179–80, 184–85, 187, 189, 240n
paternal absence and, 120–21
in schools, 46, 48
zero-tolerance policies in response to rising rates of, 46, 48–49, 50, 51
see also juvenile delinquency; violence
Crosby, Faye, 111
Cub Scouts, 46, 47, 123
Cullen, Dave, 188
Daily Telegraph (London), 173–74
Daley, Janet, 173–74
Damon, William, 174, 191, 192
Darwin, Charles, 113
Dateline NBC, 127, 179
Daugherty, Mrs., 148–49, 151, 171
David Youree Elementary School, 46
Davis, T. Cullen, 53
Debold, Elizabeth, 70, 121
DeFazio, Jackie, 77
DeMott, Benjamin, 195, 197
Denver, University of, 60, 105
depression, 128, 129, 135, 138, 143, 232n
Didion, Joan, 175, 179
“difference feminists,” 108, 112
DiIulio, John J., Jr., 49, 50, 52, 53
discipline, 3, 8, 63, 146, 177–78, 182, 187, 189
boys as benefiting from, 3, 63, 148–49, 152, 153, 154, 172, 173–74, 181, 193, 194–95, 197, 198
“child-centered” learning and departure from, 149, 150, 185, 186, 187
court decisions and, 185–86
criminal behavior and absence of, 173–74, 176–77, 178, 179–80, 184–85, 189
zero-tolerance policies and, 2, 8, 40, 45–49, 60–62, 174, 186, 190, 198
divorce rates, 86
dodgeball, 40, 44
dolls, 64, 65, 66, 68–70, 72, 90
domestic violence, 54, 220n
Dowd, Maureen, 204
Downes, Peter, 152
Drexler, Melissa, 135
drop out rates, 14, 160, 161, 211n
DSM-IV, 131, 231n, 232n
Duncan, Arne, 10, 163
Economist, 152
Edelman, Marian Wright, 191
education, 126, 148–71
anti-competition movement in, 2, 40–41, 44, 45, 149, 150
antiharassment measures in, 55–56, 60–62, 203
British and Australian “boy-friendly” initiatives in, 2, 150–56, 158, 159, 170–71
“call-out” gap in, 102, 210n, 227n
cooperative learning in, 41, 55–56, 150, 152, 157, 159
discipline and structure as beneficial in, 148–49, 150, 152, 153, 154, 155, 171, 173–74, 181, 182, 191, 193, 194–95, 197
gender-bias studies on, 11
, 12, 100, 101–3, 210n, 227n
gender gap in, see gender gap
gifted-and-talented programs in, 167, 168, 169–70
girl-crisis movement in, 11–12, 16, 17–18, 29, 35, 37, 76, 78, 92, 101–3, 155, 157, 231n–32n
male teachers in, 85, 153, 155, 223n
male underachievement as ignored in, 2, 3, 16, 28–29, 34–35, 38, 126, 151, 155, 157, 159, 165–66
moral, see morality, moral reasoning
professional schools in, 19–20
pro-girl legislative reforms in, 11, 29, 60, 92, 102–3, 106, 163–66, 170, 171
progressive approaches in, see progressive education
racial and social class inequities in, 21, 23–24
resocialization of play behavior in, 44, 55–56, 63, 65–70, 201–2
self-esteem movement in, 11, 12, 40–41, 76, 139–40, 145–46, 181, 184, 194, 231n, 232n
single-sex schooling in, 1, 2, 4–5, 19, 81–88, 152–54, 171
teachers’ assessments in, 36–38, 37
testing gap in, 15–16, 17–18, 35–36
vocational schools in, 1, 7–11, 27, 33, 38, 159, 160–67, 170, 171
“women-centered” pedagogy in, 76–79, 156, 199
zero-tolerance policies in, 2, 40, 45–49, 50, 51, 60–62, 63, 174, 186, 190, 198
see also specific subjects and levels of schooling
Educational Experience of Young Men of Color, The (College Board report), 24
Education Department, Minnesota, 54–55
Education Department, New York City, 8, 45, 46
Education Department, US (DOE), 8, 14–15, 17, 17, 19, 24–25, 36, 56, 57, 65, 66, 67, 70, 85, 90, 156, 163, 165, 166, 167, 171, 192, 193, 213n, 222n
Gender Equity in Education report of, 34–35, 38
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) of, 12, 13, 14, 17, 47
Office for Civil Rights at, 34
Office of Educational Research and Improvement at, 67
Trends in Educational Equity report of, 11–14, 17–18, 20, 35, 105
Education Week, 84, 101, 113, 121, 189
elementary schools, 36, 100, 102, 156, 176
antiharassment measures in, 55–56, 60–61
character education in, 191, 194
competitive and aggressive games discouraged in, 40–41, 44, 45, 55–56, 63
decline of recess in, 2, 43–45
resocialization of play behavior in, 66–70
teachers’ assessments in, 36–38, 37
Eliot, Lise, 72
Embry Riddle Aeronautical, 167
Emma Willard School, 92, 93
emotional disengagement, 116, 139–44, 145
Gilligan’s theory on, 117–20, 121, 122–23, 126, 139, 140
potential benefits of, 142, 143
“reconnection” efforts to reverse trend of, 139–40, 141–42, 143–44, 145, 146
in religious teachings, 143–44
England, see Great Britain
Epictetus, 194
Ethical Choices: Individual Voices (TV program), 180–81
Eton, 84
Everett Middle School, 77–79
Explorer Scouts, 64
expulsions, 42, 46, 61, 198
extracurricular activities, 13, 14, 105
Failing at Fairness (Sadker and Sadker), 68–69, 97
Fallon Park Elementary School, 191
Faludi, Susan, 137–38, 139, 175, 179
Family Violence Prevention Fund, 54
Fashion Industry High School, 27
Fatherless America (Blankenhorn), 120–21
fathers, absence of, 120–21, 122
FBI, 58, 59, 220n
Feiner, Susan, 27–28
Feminine Mystique, The (Friedan), 28
feminism, feminists, 3, 9, 33–34, 61, 75, 77, 86, 106–7, 113, 179
as critical of research on sex differences, 80, 81
“difference,” 108, 112
distortion of facts by, 57–60, 86–87
mothering sons as offering insights to, 201–3
see also women’s lobbying groups
First Amendment, 185
Fisk University, 24, 213n
Fogelman, Stephen, 60
Fonda, Jane, 107, 228n
Ford, Jack, 134–35
Fortas, Abe, 185, 186
Franklin Elementary School, 40
Fraser, Alison, 162–63, 164
Freud, Sigmund, 144, 232n–33n
Friedan, Betty, 28, 175, 176, 178, 179
Froebel, Friedrich, 158
Galston, William, 120
Galyan, Deborah, 201–2
Galyan, Dylan, 201–2
Geary, David, 74
Gender, Race, and Student Achievement conference, 103–4
gender-equity activists, 56–60, 199
gender identity formation as viewed by, 65–68, 70–73
legal action and lawsuits filed by, 9–11, 64, 82, 88, 90, 164
questionable research methodologies and findings of, 86–87, 92, 93, 94, 95, 98, 101–2, 104, 105, 106–7, 108–13, 114, 115, 119, 123
resocialization movement of, see resocialization movement
traditional masculinity viewed as predatory by, 40, 53–54, 56–57, 58, 59, 60, 73, 175, 176, 203, 238n
see also women’s lobbying groups
Gender Equity for Educators, Parents, and Community (WEEA guide), 66–67
Gender Equity for Girls and Boys: A Conference for K-12 Teachers and Administrators, 65–66
Gender Equity in Education (DOE report), 34–35, 38
Gender Equity in Education Act (1993), 11, 29, 103, 106
gender gap, 1–2, 12–24, 35, 92, 102, 126, 156, 197, 211n
in academic engagement, 14, 16, 34, 35, 105, 154, 159, 160
in Advanced Placement courses, 13, 24, 35
“boy-friendly” pedagogy in addressing of, 1, 4, 19, 33, 38, 81, 88, 150–56, 157, 159, 170–71
as crossing racial and class lines, 24–25, 27, 36, 154
in developmental assets, 104–5
in extracurricular activities, 13, 14, 105
in gifted-and-talented programs, 167, 168, 169–70
in grade performance, 12, 13, 14, 36, 37–38, 105, 210n–11n
in higher education, 13, 14, 16–17, 17, 18, 19–20, 22–23, 23, 24, 27–28, 29–30, 30, 31, 34, 35, 38, 104, 165, 213n
in high school achievement, 13–14, 13, 14, 18, 25, 27, 35, 106
in honors programs, 14, 24, 35
in math and science, 12, 15, 16, 17–18, 35, 36, 37, 37, 74, 165, 223n
progressive education models as contributing to, 150, 157, 158, 159
in reading and writing, 13, 16, 24–25, 36, 37, 83, 105, 151, 153, 154, 157, 223n
in self-esteem, 100, 101, 152
single-sex schooling in addressing of, 85, 86, 88, 152–54, 171
in teachers’ assessments, 36–38, 37
in test scores, 15–16, 17–18, 35–36, 37
in wages, 21, 25–27
see also male underachievement
Gender Gap in California Higher Education, The (California Postsecondary Education Commission), 19–20
gender identity:
biological role in, 66, 72, 117, 201
early intervention efforts in reshaping of, 64–73
resocialization of, see resocialization movement
social origins argument and, 10, 65–68, 70–73, 116, 201
see also masculine identity; sex differences
gender quotas, 163–67
gender schemas, 65–68, 70, 71, 76, 203
gender stereotypes, 2, 80, 88, 89, 108, 123, 157
boys viewed as victims of, 96, 114, 115–20, 121, 122–24, 128, 139
early intervention approach in defeating of, 65, 66, 67–68, 70
single-sex schooling as allegedly promoting, 82, 83, 84, 86–87
vocational schools criticized for promoting, 10, 27, 162–63
see also masculine identity
Georgia, Unive
rsity of (UGA), 18, 36, 37
Georgia Tech, 166
gifted-and-talented programs, 167, 168, 169–70
Gilligan, Carol, 12, 70, 91–97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 103, 109–14, 134, 142, 143, 228n, 233n
adolescent “girl crisis” claimed by, 91–97, 98, 99, 101, 103, 106, 112, 114, 115, 126, 128, 129, 136, 138
Chodorow’s influence on, 116–18
critics of, 91, 108–13, 114
on emotional disengagement of boys, 117–20, 121, 122–23, 126, 139, 140
on masculine separation from mother, 117, 118, 119–20, 121–22, 123, 130, 175
military culture criticized by, 124–25
patriarchal social order criticized by, 108, 112, 114, 115–16, 117–20, 121–22, 123, 124
on “relational crisis” of boys, 96, 114, 115, 118–20, 121–23
research methods and data of, 92, 93, 94, 95, 98, 108–13, 114, 115, 119, 123, 129
on resocialization of boys, 115–16, 118–19, 121–24, 126, 138
on sex differences in moral psychology, 107–9, 112, 117, 126, 229n
studies contradicting findings of, 100, 104, 105–7, 109
women’s groups as inspired by, 96, 98, 99, 106, 107, 126
girl-crisis movement, 11–12, 14, 16, 20, 33, 35, 37, 76, 91–107, 136
AAUW-commissioned studies in, 99–103
“boy-friendly” projects seen as backlash against advancements of, 1, 20, 21–22, 156
boys overlooked in, 77, 92, 96, 114, 126, 155, 157, 165, 171, 197, 199, 231n–32n
classroom gender bias alleged in, 11, 12, 74, 78, 79, 84, 100, 101–3, 210n, 227n
controversial research as basis of, 12, 92–96, 98, 99, 101–3, 106–7, 112–13, 114, 126, 129, 210n, 227n
federal policies and legislation in response to, 11, 29, 33, 102–3, 106, 114, 171
media attention on, 18, 29, 33, 96–98, 101, 128
self-esteem issues as focus of, 11, 12, 76, 98–103, 126, 147, 152, 157, 231n
studies contradicting thesis of, 17–18, 97, 100, 105–7, 136–37
Take Our Daughters to Work Day and, 11, 54, 98–99, 106
“women-centered” pedagogy as result of, 76–79, 156, 199
Girl Power!, 11, 29
girls:
adolescent developmental “crisis” of, 12, 76, 91–98, 99–100, 101, 103, 106, 107, 112, 114, 115, 128, 129, 136, 138–39, 147, 199, 204
“call-out” gap and, 102, 210n, 227n
criminal behavior of, 135
cultural “silencing” of, 79, 91–97, 98, 99–101, 102, 103–4, 105–7, 108, 114, 119, 126, 129, 147, 199
federal policies and legislation in favor of, 10–11, 29, 33, 60, 102–3, 106, 114, 163–66, 171
moral insights of adolescent, 93–94
nurturing propensities in, 64, 67, 70, 71, 72, 73, 116, 221n
obesity rates in, 44, 45
as outperforming boys academically, 12–15, 16–17, 18–19, 22, 23, 24–25, 29, 30, 35, 36, 83, 102, 104–5, 126, 152, 153, 165–66, 197, 210n–11n
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