18. Lin Man-houng, “Late Qing Perceptions of Native Opium,” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 64, no. 1 (June 2004): 117–44, see pp. 119–20.
19. Paul A. Van Dyke, The Canton Trade: Life and Enterprise on the China Coast, 1700–1845 (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2005), pp. 122–23.
20. Melissa Macauley, “Small Time Crooks: Opium, Migrants, and the War on Drugs in China, 1819–1860,” Late Imperial China 30, no. 1 (June 2009): 1–47, see p. 40.
21. Lin, “Late Qing Perceptions of Native Opium,” p. 118–19, 128.
22. Zheng, Social Life of Opium, pp. 71–86.
23. Bello, Opium and the Limits of Empire, pp. 1–2.
24. Zheng, Social Life of Opium, pp. 65, 71–86.
25. Hollingworth Magniac testimony to the Committee of the House of Lords relative to the Affairs of the East India Company, 1830, in Parliamentary Papers Relating to the Opium Trade . . . 1821 to 1832 (Collected for the use of the Committee of the House of Commons on China Trade, 1840), p. 25.
26. Da Qing Xuanzong Cheng (Daoguang) huangdi shilu (Taipei: Taiwan Huawen shuju, 1964), juan 163, p. 18b.
27. Memorial from Lu Yinpu et al., in Qi Sihe et al., eds., Yapian zhanzheng (Shanghai: Xin zhishi chubanshe, 1955), vol. 1, pp. 413–15, quotation on p. 414.
28. These 1831 memorials are reprinted in Qi, Yapian zhanzheng (hereafter YPZZ), vol. 1, pp. 411–48.
29. Spence, “Opium Smoking,” p. 162.
30. William W. Wood, Sketches of China (Philadelphia: Carey & Lea, 1830), pp. 208–10.
31. Macauley, “Small Time Crooks,” pp. 6, 7, 8, 22.
32. Joyce Madancy, The Troublesome Legacy of Commissioner Lin: The Opium Trade and Opium Suppression in Fujian Province, 1820s to 1920s (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 2003), p. 52.
33. The foregoing section is heavily indebted to Melissa Macauley, “Small Time Crooks.”
34. Yu Ende, paraphrasing Tao Zhu in Zhongguo jinyan faling bianqian shi (Shanghai: Zhonghua shuju, 1934), p. 51; Tao Zhu was the Liangjiang governor-general at the time.
35. “Pao Shih-ch’en,” in Hummel, ed., Eminent Chinese, vol. 2, pp. 610–11; William T. Rowe, Speaking of Profit: Bao Shichen and Reform in Nineteenth-Century China, prepublication book manuscript, chapter 1.
36. Susan Mann’s translation in The Talented Women of the Zhang Family (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007), p. 251, n. 83.
37. My profile of Bao Shichen is much indebted to William Rowe, Speaking of Profit, chapter 1.
38. Philip Kuhn, Origins of the Modern Chinese State (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002), pp. 19–20.
39. William Rowe, “Bao Shichen and Agrarian Reform in Early Nineteenth-Century China,” Frontiers of History in China 9, no. 1 (2014): 1–31, see p. 9.
40. Rowe, “Bao Shichen and Agrarian Reform,” p. 15.
41. Bao Shichen, “Gengchen zazhu er,” in Bao Shichen quan ji (guanqing sanyi, qimin sishu), ed. Li Xing (Hefei: Huangshan shushe, 1997), pp. 209–13, see p. 213.
42. Rowe, “Bao Shichen and Agrarian Reform,” p. 17.
43. Bao Shichen, “Gengchen zazhu er.”
44. Ibid.
45. Guan Tong, “Jin yong yanghuo yi,” in Hu Qiuyuan, ed., Jindai Zhongguo dui Xifang ji lieqiang renshi ziliao huibian (Taipei: Academia Sinica, Modern History Institute, 1972) (hereafter JDZGDXF), vol. 1, pp. 819–20.
46. Guan Tong, “Jin yong yanghuo yi,” pp. 819–820.
47. Biographical note on Cheng Hanzhang in JDZGDXF, vol. 1, p. 817; Inoue Hiromasa, “Wu Lanxiu and Society in Guangzhou on the Eve of the Opium War,” trans. Joshua Fogel, Modern China 12, no. 1 (January 1986): 103–15, see pp. 110–12; Cheng Hanzhang, “Lun Yanghai,” in JDZGDXF, vol. 1, p. 817.
48. Cheng Hanzhang, “Lun Yanghai,” p. 817.
49. Bao Shichen, “Da Xiao Meisheng shu,” in JDZGDXF, vol. 1, p. 800.
50. Biographical note on Xiao Lingyu in JDZGDXF, vol. 1, p. 766.
51. Xiao Lingyu, “Yingjili ji,” in YPZZ, vol. 1, pp. 19–30.
52. For a wonderful study of Qing perceptions of India, see Matthew W. Mosca, “Qing China’s Perspectives on India, 1750–1847” (Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, 2008), later revised and published as From Frontier Policy to Foreign Policy: The Question of India and the Transformation of Geopolitics in Qing China (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2013).
53. Bao Shichen, “Da Xiao Meisheng shu,” p. 800.
54. Xiao Lingyu, “Yingjili ji,” p. 22.
55. This is actually a fairly accurate rendition of Amherst’s response, which Henry Ellis relates in his account of the embassy. See Ellis, Journal of the Proceedings of the Late Embassy to China (London: John Murray, 1817), p. 412.
CHAPTER 9 Freedom
1. Harriet Low Hillard, Lights and Shadows of a Macao Life: The Journal of Harriett [sic] Low, Traveling Spinster, ed. Nan P. Hodges and Arthur W. Hummel (Woodinville, WA: The History Bank, 2002), vol. 1, p. 196.
2. Hosea Ballou Morse, The Chronicles of the East India Company Trading to China, 1635–1834 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1926), vol. 4, pp. 199–21.
3. In Hillard, Journal of Harriett Low, vol. 1, p. 73, Low calls her the prettiest woman in Macao (“she is a beauty”).
4. Ibid., pp. 110, 141; William C. Hunter, The ‘Fan Kwae’ at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825–1844 (London: Kegan Paul, Trench & Co., 1882), p. 120.
5. Hillard, Journal of Harriett Low, vol. 1, pp. 141–42.
6. Ibid., vol. 2, p. 435.
7. Low complained to her sister of being left behind, writing of a woman she feared would join the others in Canton, “I do hope she will not go this season to C[anton], for we shall be alone if she does.” Hillard, Journal of Harriett Low, vol. 1, p. 110.
8. Morse, Chronicles, vol. 4, p. 236.
9. Ibid., p. 237.
10. Ibid., pp. 237–38.
11. Hillard, Journal of Harriett Low, vol. 1, p. 193.
12. Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 193, 194.
13. Hunter, The ‘Fan Kwae’ at Canton, p. 120.
14. “China Trade: Copy of a Petition of British Subjects in China . . . ,” House of Commons, March 20, 1833; the petition is also reproduced in Alain Le Pichon, ed., China Trade and Empire: Jardine, Matheson & Co. and the Origins of British Rule in Hong Kong, 1827–1843 (Oxford: Oxford University Press for the British Academy, 2006), appendix IV, pp. 553–59.
15. On claims of governor, see Morse, Chronicles, vol. 4, p. 286; on the position of the two portraits in the great hall, see Gideon Nye, The Morning of My Life in China (Canton, 1873), p. 20.
16. “Resolutions of the British Merchants of Canton,” May 30, 1831, in Morse, Chronicles, vol. 4, p. 311.
17. Secret letter from the Select Committee to the Court of Directors, June 18, 1831, in Papers Relating to the Affairs of the East India Company, 1831–32 (House of Commons, 1832), pp. 6–10.
18. Robert Bennet Forbes to John Perkins Cushing, June 30, 1831, Forbes Family Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society.
19. Robert Bennet Forbes to Thomas H. Perkins, December 21, 1831, ibid.
20. On September 5, 1832, she described him as “my recherché admirer, Gutzlaff.” Hillard, Journal of Harriett Low, vol. 2, p. 435.
21. Issachar Roberts in 1839, as quoted in Jessie Lutz, Opening China: Karl F. A. Gutzlaff and Sino-Western Relations, 1827–1852 (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 2008), p. 20.
22. Charles (Karl) Gutzlaff, Journal of Three Voyages along the Coast of China (London: Frederick Westley and A. H. Davis, 1834), p. 71.
23. Lutz, Opening China, p. 72.
24. Gutzlaff, Journal, pp. 68, 69, 70, 88.
25. Ibid., pp. 73, 128, 107.
26. Ibid., pp. 132–33.
27. Ibid., p. 151.
28. Hansard’s Parliamentary Debates, 3rd series (London: T. C. Hansard), HC Deb., June 28, 1831, vol. 4, quotations from cc. 432, 433, and 435.
29. Hansard, HL Deb., December 13, 1831, vol. 9, quotations from cc. 211, 21
2.
30. Quoted in Capt. T. H. Bullock, The Chinese Vindicated, or Another View of the Opium Question (London: Wm. H. Allen and Co., 1840), pp. 8, 10.
31. Charles Stuart Parker, Life and Letters of Sir James Graham, Second Baronet of Netherby, P.C., G.C.B., 1792–1861 (London: John Murray, 1907), vol. 1, p. 150.
32. Anthony Webster, The Twilight of the East India Company (Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK: Boydell Press, 2009), p. 62.
33. “East India Company—China Question,” Edinburgh Review, January 1831, pp. 281–322, quotation on p. 311.
34. Yukihisa Kumagai, “The Lobbying Activities of Provincial Mercantile and Manufacturing Interests against the Renewal of the East India Company’s Charter, 1812–1813 and 1829–1833” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Glasgow, 2008), p. 133.
35. John Slade, Notices on the British Trade to the Port of Canton (London: Smith, Elder, and Co., 1830), pp. 65–68.
36. Webster, Twilight of the East India Company, p. 98.
37. Bates testimony, March 15, 1830, in Reports from the Select Committee of the House of Commons Appointed to Enquire into the Present State of the Affairs of the East India Company, together with the Minutes of Evidence, and Appendix of Documents, and a General Index (London: Printed by order of the Honourable Court of Directors, 1830), pp. 332–56.
38. John Murray Forbes, Reminiscences of John Murray Forbes, ed. Sarah Forbes Hughes (Boston: George H. Ellis, 1902), vol. 1, p. 154.
39. C. H. Philips, The East India Company, 1784–1834 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1940), pp. 289, 291–292; Webster, Twilight of the East India Company, pp. 99–100; “The Directors are labouring”: Charles Marjoribanks to Hugh Hamilton Lindsay from St. Helena, April 19, 1832, Lindsay Papers, D(W)1920-4/1, Staffordshire Records Office, Stafford, England.
40. George Thomas Staunton diary, November 17, 1831, Staunton Papers, Rubenstein Library, Duke University, Durham, NC, accessed via Adam Matthew Digital, “China: Trade, Politics and Culture, 1793–1980.”
41. Staunton diary, December 10, 1831.
42. George Staunton, “To the Freeholders of the County of Southampton,” and “To the Freeholders and other Electors of South Hants” (n.d., newspaper clippings contained in Staunton diary for 1831–37).
43. “slipshod and untidy”: George W. E. Russell, Collections and Recollections (New York and London: Harper & Brothers, 1903), p. 138, cited in Antonia Fraser, Perilous Question: Reform or Revolution? Britain on the Brink, 1832 (New York: PublicAffairs, 2013), p. 59.
44. George Thomas Staunton, Memoirs of the Chief Incidents of the Public Life of Sir George Thomas Staunton, Bart., printed for private circulation (London: L. Booth, 1856), pp. 124–27; David Brown, Palmerston: A Biography (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2010), pp. 170–74.
45. Staunton, Memoirs, p. 77.
46. “Sir George Staunton, we find, has postponed his motion on the China trade . . . ,” Times, April 1, 1833.
47. George Thomas Staunton, Corrected Report of the Speeches of Sir George Staunton, on the China Trade, in the House of Commons, June 4, and June 13, 1833 (London: Edmund Lloyd, 1833), pp. 6, 9.
48. Staunton’s mumbling: untitled clipping in Staunton’s diary for 1831–37 (Staunton Papers), in which Buckingham refers to “the low tone of voice in which the hon. baronet addressed the house,” which the reporters could not hear, so that his entire speech was reduced to just a few lines in the papers the next day; “It could not be expected”: Hansard, HC Deb., June 4, 1833, vol. 18, c. 378.
49. Ibid., June 13, 1833, vol. 18, c. 708.
50. William James Thompson in London to Jardine, Matheson & Co. in Canton, April 8, 1833 (and allowing six months for the letter’s arrival in Canton). In Le Pichon, China Trade and Empire, p. 180.
CHAPTER 10 A Darkening Turn
1. Eliza Morrison, Memoirs of the Life and Labours of Robert Morrison, D.D. (London: Longman, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1839), vol. 2, p. 505.
2. Houqua to John Murray Forbes, January 25, 1834, Forbes Family Business Records, vol. F-5, pp. 56–57, Baker Library Historical Collections, Harvard Business School.
3. Basil Lubbock, The Opium Clippers (Glasgow: Brown, Son & Ferguson, Ltd., 1933), pp. 4, 13 passim; A. R. Williamson, Eastern Traders: Some Men and Ships of Jardine, Matheson & Company (S.l.: Jardine, Matheson & Co., 1975), p. 191.
4. William Jardine to James Matheson, January 28, 1832, in Alain Le Pichon, ed., China Trade and Empire: Jardine, Matheson & Co. and the Origins of British Rule in Hong Kong, 1827–1843 (Oxford: Oxford University Press for the British Academy, 2006), pp. 143–45, quotation on p. 144.
5. Harriet Low Hillard, Lights and Shadows of a Macao Life: The Journal of Harriett [sic] Low, Traveling Spinster, ed. Nan P. Hodges and Arthur W. Hummel (Woodinville, WA: The History Bank, 2002), vol. 2, p. 590.
6. Hugh Hamilton Lindsay, Report of Proceedings on a Voyage to the Northern Ports of China, in the Ship Lord Amherst, 2nd ed. (London: B. Fellowes, 1834), pp. 10–11.
7. Ibid., p. 44.
8. Ship Amherst: Return to an Order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 17 June 1833 . . . (Printed by order of the House of Commons, June 19, 1833), p. 4.
9. “A Brief Account of the English Character,” original English as reproduced in Ting Man Tsao, “Representing ‘Great England’ to Qing China in the Age of Free Trade Imperialism: The Circulation of a Tract by Charles Marjoribanks on the China Coast,” Victorians Institute Journal 33 (2005): 179–96; an English version also appeared in the Canton Register, July 18, 1832; the Chinese version is in Yapian zhanzheng dang’an shiliao (Shanghai: Renmin chubanshe, 1987), vol. 1, pp. 118–20.
10. “Voyage of the Amherst to Northern China,” Eclectic Review, October 1833, p. 332, cited in Ting Man Tsao, “Representing China to the British Public in the Age of Free Trade, c. 1833–1844” (Ph.D. dissertation, SUNY Stony Brook, 2000), p. 51.
11. “Mr. Gutzlaff’s Voyages along the Coast of China,” Times, August 26, 1834.
12. For example, “The Chinese,” Farmer’s Cabinet, Amherst, New Hampshire, December 7, 1832.
13. For example, the Evangelical Magazine and Missionary Chronicle, vol. 12, new series (September 1834): 381.
14. Ship Amherst, p. 5.
15. Robert Bickers, “The Challenger: Hugh Hamilton Lindsay and the Rise of British Asia, 1832–1865,” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, vol. 22 (December 2012): 141–69, see pp. 146, 152–57.
16. William Jardine to James Matheson, January 28, 1832, in Le Pichon, China Trade and Empire, pp. 143–45.
17. “Voyage of the ‘Sylph,’” Canton Register, May 31, 1833.
18. “Political Economy,” Canton Register, May 13, 1831.
19. “Prize Essay,” Canton Register, June 18, 1831.
20. These are listed in Alexander Wylie, Memorials of the Protestant Missionaries to the Chinese (Shanghai: American Presbyterian Mission Press, 1867), pp. 56–66.
21. For example, in a letter of June 1834, Gutzlaff said he was dedicating his next book (a history of China) to William Jardine, praising the opium baron for having “greatly assisted in the promotion of a free intercourse with the Chinese Empire, of which we may expect the greatest results both for religion, science and commerce.” Gutzlaff to William Jardine, Canton, June 20, 1834, in Le Pichon, China Trade and Empire, pp. 216–17.
22. “Letter from Mr. Gutzlaff,” Boston Recorder, April 5, 1834.
23. “Mission to China,” Boston Recorder, May 31, 1834.
24. “[W]e are glad,” proclaimed the Society’s mission statement, “to engage in a warfare, where we are sure the victors and the vanquished will meet only to exult and rejoice together.” “Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge,” Chinese Repository, December 1834, p. 380; Report of a meeting of the Society, as “Supplement to the Canton Register,” Canton Register, October 20, 1835.
25. “Barbarism. Civilisation,” Canton Register, December 30, 1834.
26. As observed by George
Staunton in Miscellaneous Notices Relating to China, and Our Commercial Intercourse with That Country, 2nd ed. (London: John Murray, 1822–50), p. 155.
27. Quoted in Anne Bulley, The Bombay Country Ships, 1790–1833 (Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press, 2000), p. 172.
28. Much to the Canton Register editor’s outraged disbelief, Staunton told the House of Commons that the Chinese were “an industrious, intelligent race” and that their government, “however despotic and arbitrary, is not practically oppressive.” “British Merchants’ Petition to Parliament,” Canton Register, August 16, 1832. Later, in the December 5, 1833, issue of the paper, the editor noted that Staunton was mainly remembered in Canton for his “violent opposition” to the merchants’ petition.
29. “A funeral sermon, occasioned by the death of the Right Honorable William-John, Lord Napier, his Britannic Majesty’s chief superintendent in China,” Chinese Repository 3, no. 6 (October 1834): 271–80.
30. Diary of William John, 9th Lord Napier, entry for October 26, 1833, manuscript in private possession of Lord Napier and Ettrick.
31. Before his departure, King William confided to Napier, “I can tell you I fought a hard Battle for you—if it had not been for me, you would never have got it.” William John Napier diary, Christmas Day 1833.
32. William John Napier, “Letters to Earl Grey, Lord Palmerston and Others. 1833–1834. China,” manuscript notebook in private possession of Lord Napier and Ettrick.
33. Viscount Palmerston to Lord Napier, January 25, 1834, in Correspondence relating to China. Presented to both Houses of Parliament, by Command of Her Majesty, 1840 (London: T. R. Harrison, 1840), pp. 4–5.
34. Harriet Low Hillard, My Mother’s Journal: A Young Lady’s Diary of Five Years Spent in Manila, Macao, and the Cape of Good Hope, ed. Katharine Hillard (Boston: George H. Ellis, 1900), p. v.
35. Palmerston to Napier, January 25, 1834, UK National Archives, Public Record Office, Foreign Office records (hereafter PRO FO), 17/5/87–89.
36. Napier diary, February 25, 1834.
37. William John Napier, “Remarks and Extracts relative to diplomatic relations with China,” personal notebook kept during voyage to China. In private possession of Lord Napier and Ettrick.
Imperial Twilight Page 57