2. Holly Yan, Khushbu Shan, and Emanuella Grinberg, “Ex-Officer Michael Slager Pleads Guilty in Shooting Death of Walter Scott,” May 2, 2017, http://www.cnn.com/2017/05/02/us/michael-slager-federal-plea/index.html.
3. “Police Brutality Law and Legal Definition,” USLegal, http://definitions.uslegal.com/p/police-brutality/.
4. “Increasing Police Brutality: Americans Killed by Cops Now Outnumber Americans Killed in Iraq,” Global Research, http://www.globalresearch.ca/increasing-police-brutality-americans-killed-by-cops-now-outnumber-americans-killed-in-iraq-war/5361554.
5. Kevin Johnson, “Police Brutality Cases since 9/11,” USA Today, December 18, 2007.
6. Nat Parry, “Is Police Brutality Color-Blind?” Consortium News, August 22, 2014, http://consortiumnews.com/2014/08/22/is-police-brutality-color-blind.
7. Amnesty International, USA: Race, Rights, and Police Brutality, August 31, 1999, Index Number AMR 51/147/1999, https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/AMR51/147/1999/en/.
8. David Freed, “Police Brutality Claims Are Rarely Prosecuted,” Los Angeles Times, July 7, 1991.
9. Seth Morris, “23 Years after Rodney King, Victims of Police Violence Get Even Less Justice,” Vanity Fair, February 2015, http://www.vanityfair.com/news/2015/02/rodney-king-23-years-even-less-justice.
10. “Chief Dodd Says Attack on Prisoner by Officers Sean Emmer, Adam Cooley ‘One Of The Worst I’ve Ever Seen,’” Chattanoogan, June 26, 2013, http://www.chattanoogan.com/2013/6/26/254032/Chief-Dodd-Says-Attack.
11. Joy Lukachick Smith, “Chattanooga Reaches $88,000 Settlement with 2 Fired Police Officers,” Chattanooga Times Free Press, January 15, 2014, http://www.timesfreepress.com/news/2014/jan/15/city-settles-with-fired-cops.
12. Shelly Bradbury, “Police Chief Says Fired Cops Shouldn’t Work as Officers Again,” Chattanooga Times Free Press, April 26, 2015.
13. Allison T. Chappell and Alex. R. Piquero, “Applying Social Learning Theory to Police Misconduct,” Deviant Behavior 25 (2004): 89–108.
14. “City Police Officer Fired after Disciplinary Hearing,” Chattanoogan, October 26, 2005, http://www.chattanoogan.com/2005/10/26/74827/City-Police-Officer-Fired-After.aspx.
15. Robert Anglen and Dan Horn, “Police Review Themselves When Citizens Complain: Officers Exonerated on 90% Of Minor Issues,” Cincinnati Enquirer, July 8, 2001.
16. “Trio Pleads to Reckless Homicide in Death of Man at Flea Market,” Chattanoogan, September 12, 2006, http://www.chattanoogan.com/2006/9/12/92600/Trio-Pleads-To-Reckless-Homicide-In.aspx.
17. Katheryn K. Russell, “What Did I Do to Be So Black and Blue? Police Violence and the Black Community,” in Police Brutality: An Anthology, ed. Jill Nelson (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000), 135–48.
18. Carolyn. M. McKinstry, While the World Watched (Carol Stream, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 2011).
19. Wil Haygood, The Butler: A Witness to History (New York: Atria Books, 2013).
20. “Medgar Evers,” History, http://www.history.com/topics/black-history/medgar-evers.
21. Robin D. G. Kelley, “‘Slanging Rocks . . . Palestinian Style’: Dispatches from the Occupied Zones of North America,” in Police Brutality: An Anthology, ed. Jill Nelson (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000), 21–59.
22. Russell, “What Did I Do.”
23. Budimir Babovic, “Police Brutality or Police Torture,” Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management 23, no. 3 (2000): 374–80.
24. ACLU, Fighting Police Abuse: A Community Action Manual, https://www.aclu.org/other/fighting-police-abuse-community-action-manual.
25. Simon McCormack, “What’s Happening in Baltimore Didn’t Just Start with Freddie Gray,” Huffington Post, April 29, 2015, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2015/04/28/freddie-gray-baltimore-history_n_7161962.html.
26. John McWhorter, “Police Kill Too Many People—White and Black,” Time, July 14, 2016, http://time.com/4404987/police-violence/.
27. Valerie Richardson, “White Teen Killed by Black Cop in Gilbert Mirrors Ferguson,” Washington Times, November 27, 2014, http://washingtontimes.com/news/2014/Nov/27/white-teen-gilbert.
28. David Rudovsky and Lawrence Rosenthal, “The Constitutionality of Stop-and-Frisk in New York City,” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 162 (2013): online 117.
29. Ibid.
30. David Jacobs and Robert M. O’Brien, “The Determinants of Deadly Force: A Structural Analysis of Police Violence,” American Journal of Sociology 103, no. 4 (1998): 837–62.
31. Renford Reese, American Paradox: Young Black Men (Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2004).
32. Steven A. Tuch and Ronald Weitzer, “Racial Differences in Attitudes toward the Police,” Public Opinion Quarterly 61 (1997): 642–63.
33. Jill Nelson, ed., Police Brutality: An Anthology (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000).
34. Russell, “What Did I Do.”
35. Chappell and Piquero, “Applying Social Learning Theory.”
36. Thomas Barker, “Peer Group Support for Police Occupational Deviance,” Criminology 15 (1977): 353–66.
37. German Lopez, “Cleveland Police Shooting of Tamir Rice: City to Pay $6 Million after 12-year-old’s Death,” Vox, November 24, 2014, updated April 25, 2016, www.vox.com/2014/11/24/7275297/tamir-rice-police-shooting.
38. Charlotte Alter, “Florida Cops Used Mugshots of Black Men for Target Practice,” Time, January 16, 2015, http://time.com/3671503/florida-police-black-men-mugshots-target-practice/.
39. Brian Lazenby, “Jury Set in Former Police Officer’s Trial,” Chattanooga Times Free Press, February 11, 2004.
40. Candice Combs, “Mistrial for Former Officer,” Chattanooga Times Free Press, February 14, 2004.
41. “Gaynor Found Not Guilty in Henderson Shooting,” Chattanoogan, April 27, 2005, http://www.chattanoogan.com/2005/4/27/66066/Gaynor-Found-Not-Guilty-In-Henderson.aspx.
42. “Law Enforcement Honored for Service,” Chattanooga Times Free Press, May 14, 2009, http://www.timesfreepress.com/news/local/story/2009/may/14/law-enforcement-honored-service/219631/.
43. Jerome H. Skolnick, Justice without Trial: Law Enforcement in Democratic Society (New York: Macmillan College Publishing, 1994).
44. Patricia Williams, “Obstacle Illusions: The Cult of Racial Appearance,” in Nelson, Police Brutality, 149–56.
45. See http://www.innocenceproject.org.
46. “Innocence Cases,” Death Penalty Information Center, https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/innocence-cases.
47. Alan Blinder, “Alabama Man Freed after Decades on Death Row,” New York Times, April 3, 2015, https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/04/us/anthony-ray-hinton-alabama-prison-freed-murder.html?_r=0.
48. Ron Daniels, “The Crisis of Police Brutality and Misconduct in America: The Causes and the Cure,” in Nelson, Police Brutality, 240–60.
49. Jacobs and O’Brien, “The Determinants of Deadly Force.”
50. Russell, “What Did I Do.”
51. Richard Austin, “Under the Veil of Suspicion,” in Nelson, Police Brutality, 206–24.
52. Katheryn Russell-Brown, The Color of Crime: Racial Hoaxes, White Fear, Black Protectionism, Police Harassment, and Other Macroaggressions (New York: New York University Press, 1998).
53. Kenneth Meeks, Driving While Black (New York: Broadway Books, 2000).
54. Arrick L. Jackson and John E. Wade, “Police Perceptions of Social Capital and Sense of Responsibility: An Explanation of Proactive Policing,” Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management 28, no. 1 (2005): 49–68.
55. Michelle K. Lersch, “Malpractice: A Critical Analysis of Citizen’s Complaints,” Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management 21, no. 1 (1998): 80–96.
56. Ishmael Reed, “Another Day at the Front,” in Nelson, Police Brutality, 89–205.
; 57. Black Youth Project, Report: White on White Crime Exceeds That of Black on Black Crime, August 18, 2014, http://blackyouthproject.com/report-white-on-white-crime-rate-exceeds-that-of-black-on-black-crime/.
58. Janet Reno, Speeches of Attorney General Reno, 1993–2001, National Press Club, April 15, 1999, https://www.justice.gov/archive/ag/speeches/1999/04-15-1999b.pdf.
59. Bob Martin, Both Sides of the Fence (Bloomington, IN: Author House, 2006).
60. “Workers at Former Clark Bros. Make Startling Discovery,” Chattanoogan, October 11, 2004, http://www.chattanoogan.com/2004/10/11/57006/Workers-At-Former-Clark-Bros.-Make.aspx.
61. Martin, Both Sides of the Fence.
62. “Lynching of Ed Johnson,” Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynching_of_Ed_Johnson.
63. Emily Yellin, “Lynching Victim Is Cleared of Rape, 100 Years Later,” New York Times, February 27, 2000.
64. For more insight into this idea, see Robert Staples, Urban Plantation: Racism and Colonialism in the Post Civil Rights Era (Oakland, CA: Black Scholar Press, 1987).
65. D. P. Laville-Wilson, “Perceptions of Police Abusive Behavior: Factors Influencing Citizens’ Attitudes of Police Violence,” American Journal of Sociology 103 (1998): 837–62.
66. Marvin D. Free, African Americans and the Criminal Justice System (London: Routledge, 1996).
67. Stanley Crouch, “What’s New: The Truth as Usual,” in Nelson, Police Brutality, 157–68.
68. Craig Hemmens and Daniel Levin, “Resistance Is Futile: The Right to Resist Unlawful Arrest in an Era of Aggressive Policing,” Crime and Delinquency 46 (2000): 472–96.
69. William H. Frey, Diversity Explosion: How New Racial Demographics Are Remaking America (Washington, DC: Brookings Institute Press, 2014).
70. “Shooting of Trayvon Martin,” Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shooting_of_Trayvon_Martin.
71. “T. J. Holmes Pulled Over: ‘Driving While Black Ain’t No Joke!’” July 30, 2012, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/07/30/tj-holmes-pulled-over-driving-black-no-joke_n_1718981.html.
72. Abby Goodnough, “Harvard Professor Jailed; Officer Accused of Bias,” New York Times, July 21, 2009, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/21/us/21gates.html.
73. Michael E. Dyson, “Special to CNN: Professor Arrested for Housing while Black,” Anderson Cooper 360, July 22, 2009, http://ac360.blogs.cnn.com/2009/07/22/professor-arrested-for-housing-while-black/.
74. “The White House Beer Summit,” Boston.com, www.boston.com/news/politics/gallery/073009_beer_summit_obama/.
75. Peter Holly, Abby Phillip, and Abby Ohlheiser, “Alabama Police Officer Arrested after Indian Grandfather Left Partially Paralyzed,” Washington Post, February 12, 2015, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2015/02/11/alabama-cops-leave-a-grandfather-partially-paralyzed-after-frisk-goes-awry/?utm_term=.4fe7503dc040.
76. Jessica King and AnneClaire Stapleton, “Charlotte Police Kill Ex-FAMU Player Who May Have Been Running to Them for Help,” September 16, 2013, http://www.cnn.com/2013/09/15/justice/north-carolina-police-shooting/index.html.
77. Julie Craven, “Michael Slager, The Cop Who Killed Walter Scott, Wasn’t Convicted Because Black Lives Don’t Matter,” Huffington Post, December 5, 2016, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/michael-slager-black-lives-matter_us_58420019e4b017f37fe4c266.
78. “Sean Bell Shooting Incident,” Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sean_Bell_shooting_incident.
79. “Shooting of Michael Brown,” Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shooting_of_Michael_Brown.
80. “Increasing Police Brutality.”
81. Nick Wing, “We Pay a Shocking Amount for Police Misconduct, and Cops Want Us to Just Accept It. We Shouldn’t,” Huffington Post, May 29, 2015, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2015/05/29/police-misconduct-settlements_n_7423386.html.
82. Robert E. Worden, “Situational and Attitudinal Explanations of Police Behavior: A Theoretical Reappraisal and Empirical Assessment, “Law and Society Review 23 (1989): 687–711.
83. Lopez, “Cleveland Police Shooting of Tamir Rice.”
84. Cato Institute, National Police Misconduct Reporting Project, www.policemisconduct.net/statistics.
85. David Feige, “The Myth of the Hero Cop,” Slate, May 25, 2015, http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/politics/2015/05/the_myth_of_the_hero_cop_police_unions_have_spread_a_dangerous_message_about.html.
CHAPTER 3
1. Steve Tobak, “Want a Great Job? Then Shave,” CBS News Moneywatch, www.cbsnews.com/news/want-a-great-job-then-shave.
2. “Blonde Stereotype,” Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blonde_stereotype.
3. “Ebonics (word),” Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebonics_(word).
4. “Oakland Ebonics Resolution,” Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakland_Ebonics_resolution.
5. Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary, s.v. “discrimination” (Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, 1990).
6. Wornie Reed, “Framing the Discussion of Racism,” in Africana Cultures and Policy Studies: Scholarship and the Transformation of Public Policy, ed. Zachery Williams (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), 55–69.
7. Patricia Bidol, Developing New Perspectives on Race: An Innovative Multi-Media Social Studies Curriculum in Racism Awareness for the Secondary Level (Detroit: New Detroit, 1970).
8. “Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution,” Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution.
9. “Fourteenth Amendment,” The Free Dictionary, http://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/fourteenth+amendment.
10. “Affirmative Action,” Dictionary.com, dictionary.reference.com/browse/affirmative+action.
11. Jessie Daniels, “White Women and Affirmative Action: Prime Beneficiaries and Opponents,” Racism Review, March 11, 2014, http://www.racismreview.com/blog/2014/03/11/white-women-affirmative-action/.
12. “The Black Codes,” International World History Project, history-world.org/black_codes.htm.
13. Nkechi Taifa, “Justice or Just Us: Fifty Years of the Criminal Punishment System,” in The Black Policy Paper on the March on Washington at 50: A Deposit Was Made, But the Check Still Bounced, ed. Z. Williams and M. Sanyika (East Elmhurst, NY: Institute of the Black World 21st Century, 2015), 59–62.
14. Nicole Puglise, “Black Americans Incarcerated Five Times More Than White People—Report,” Guardian, June 18, 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/jun/18/mass-incarceration-black-americans-higher-rates-disparities-report.
15. Steven Tuch and Ronald Weitzer, “Racial Differences in Attitudes toward the Police,” Public Opinion Quarterly 61 (1997): 642–63.
16. ACLU, “Racial Profiling: Definition,” https://www.aclu.org/racial-profiling-definition.
17. Jason Horowitz, Nick Corasaniti, and Ashley Southall, “Nine Killed in Shooting at Black Church in Charleston,” June 17, 2015, https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/18/us/church-attacked-in-charleston-south-carolina.html?_r=0.
18. Alan Blinder and Kevin Sack, “Dylan Roof Is Sentenced to Death in Charleston Church Massacre,” New York Times, January 10, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/10/us/dylann-roof-trial-charleston.html.
19. Christopher Waldrep, Racial Violence on Trial: A Handbook with Cases, Laws, and Documents (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2001).
20. “Anti-miscegenation Laws,” Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws.
21. Tim Lewis, “Ruth Negga: ‘There Are Films That Really Mark You. Loving Is One of Those for Me,’” Guardian, January 29, 2017, https://www.theguardian.com/film/2017/jan/29/ruth-negga-loving-interview-rising-star-oscar-nomination.
22. Southern Poverty Law Center, “Ku Klux Klan: A History of Racism,” February 28, 2011, https://www.splcenter.org/20110301/ku-klux-klan-
history-racism.
23. Ibid.
24. Carolyn M. McKinstry, While the World Watched (Carol Stream, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 2011).
25. Adam Gabbatt, “Ku Klux Klan to Rally in Memphis in Protest at Park’s Name Change,” Guardian, March 20, 2013, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/mar/20/ku-klux-klan-memphis-rally.
26. Jolie Lee, “KKK Raising Money for Ferguson Police Officer,” USA Today, August 19, 2014, https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation-now/2014/08/19/ku-klux-klan-ferguson-police-michael-brown/14275115/.
27. Joseph A. Baldwin, “Theory and Research Concerning the Notion of Black Self-Hatred: A Review and Reinterpretation,” Journal of Black Psychology 5, no. 2 (1979): 51–77.
28. John H. Griffin, Black Like Me (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1961).
29. Greg Botelho, “Rachel Dolezal’s Brother: She’s Making Up More and More Lies,” June 18, 2015, http://www.cnn.com/2015/06/17/us/washington-rachel-dolezal-naacp/index.html.
30. “Imitation of Life (1934 film),” Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imitation_of_Life_(1934_film).
31. “What Is Cyberbullying,” Stopbullying.gov, https://www.stopbullying.gov/cyberbullying/what-is-it/index.html.
32. Katheryn K. Russell, “What Did I Do to Be So Black and Blue? Police Violence and the Black Community,” in Police Brutality: An Anthology, ed. Jill Nelson (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000), 135–48.
33. Kenneth Meeks, Driving While Black (New York: Broadway Books, 2000).
34. Jerome H. Skolnick, Justice without Trial: Law Enforcement in Democratic Society (New York: Macmillan College Publishing, 1994).
35. “Shooting of Trayvon Martin,” Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shooting_of_Trayvon_Martin.
36. Skolnick, Justice without Trial.
37. Renford Reese, American Paradox: Young Black Men (Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2004).
38. For those still perplexed about the existence of racial profiling, I recommend Gregory Williams, Life on the Color Line: The True Story of a White Boy Who Discovered He Was Black (New York: Dutton Publisher, 1995). Williams and his brother were privileged white children who became oppressed black children overnight. When Dr. Williams was ten years old, his mother left the family with his younger brother and sister. He and his other brother were left with his alcoholic father. Dr. Williams later discovered that his father had been passing for white but was actually the son of a black mother. When his father could no longer care for the two boys, he took them from Virginia as white boys to Indiana to live with his mother. The boys had no idea of their black heritage until they arrived in Indiana and became two black boys. The story of Dr. Williams is an amazing example of racial profiling and white privilege.
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