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Time in History: Views of Time From Prehistory to the Present Day

Page 29

by G. J. Whitrow


  Jerusalem, destruction of temple, 51, 54

  Jesuits in China, 96

  Jesus Christ: crucifixion, 57; date of birth, 57, 70, 74, 131; second coming, 65, 80

  jet-lag, 3

  Jews, 51-6: beginning of day, 15; idea of history, 52-4; idea of time, 52-6; seven day week, 68-9see also Hebrew calendar; Hebrew historiography; Hebrew language

  Joachim of Fiore, 76, 81-2, 178

  Jones, Sir William, 13

  jubilees, 56

  Judaea, 51

  Julian calendar, 66, 116, 119-20, 187, 189, 192

  Julian days, 137

  Julius Caesar, see Caesar

  Jupiter satellites, occultation, 140

  -211-

  jurisprudence, see law

  Juvenal, 66

  Kalavada, 87-8

  kalpa, 88

  Kant, Immanuel, 148, 151, 153, 154, 156, 186

  katun, 95

  Kelvin, Lord, see Thomson, William

  Kepler, Johannes, 118, 122

  Klibansky, R., 135

  Koehler, W., 7-8

  Kolakowski, L., 172

  Kronos, 48

  Lagrange, Joseph Louis, 180

  Landes, D.S., 112

  language: and time, 5, 6, 8-9, 11-14, 22-3, 186; evolution, 158

  Laplace, Pierre Simon, 153

  Lascaux paintings, 21

  Lashley, K.S., 11

  Last Judgement, see world, end of

  Latin: word order, 14

  law, historical attitude to, 178

  leap seconds, 169

  leap years, 66, 116, 118, 187-8

  legal time, 82, 164-5

  Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 128-30, 146, 173

  Lenneberg, E.H., 11

  Leonardo da Vinci, 104

  Le Roy, Pierre, 145-6

  letters, dating, 65, 84-5

  light, velocity, 173

  Lilius, Aloisius, 118, 192

  linear time: ancient concept, 43, 51-3, 57, 63; modern concept, 128, 154, 157, 186

  Livy, 58

  logarithms, 135

  Lombard, Peter, 183

  Long Count (Maya), 93

  longitude determination, 139-46, 167, 168: prize, 141, 143-5

  Lord's Day, 69-70

  Lovejoy, A., 146-7, 153

  Lovelace, Lady, 181

  Lucretius, 58-9

  lunar calendar, 27, 31, 54, 80

  lunar-distance method, 139-40, 144, 167

  lunar eclipse, see Moon

  lunar tables, 144

  lunar year, 32, 66

  lunations, 17, 189, 191, 192

  luni-solar calendar, 45, 56, 190

  luni-solar cycle, 32, 45

  Luther, Martin, 133, 137

  Mabillon, Jean, 138

  MacDonald, D. B., 79-80, 87

  Machiavelli, Niccolo, 137, 184

  mail-coach system, 159

  Maimonides, Moses, 79

  Maine, Sir Henry, 178

  Maitland, F.W., 184

  al-Ma'mun, 77

  Manetho, 26

  Manichaeism, 60

  Marcus Aurelius, 59

  Marduk, 30, 53

  marine chronometer, 139-46, 161, 165

  maritime charts, 145

  maritime disasters, 141, 142

  Marx, Karl, 178

  Maskelyne, Nevil, 144, 161, 165

  mathematical time, 128-9

  Maya, 92-6, 183

  Maya calendar, 93-5

  Mayer, Tobias, 144

  meal times, 18, 114

  mean solar day, 115, 187

  measurement, precision, 127

  measurement, time, see time measurement

  mechanical clock, 17, 90, 99-107, 112: social influence, 107-14; temperature compensation, 143, 145see also balance spring; escapement; marine chronometer; pendulum clock; watches

  medicine and astrology, 121

  medieval Europe, 71-7

  memory, 64, 171

  mercury clock, 102-3

  'Merkhet', 28

  Mersenne, Marin, 123

  Mesoamerica, 92-6

  Messiah, 51, 57, 81

  metempsychosis, 88

  Meton, 32, 45

  Metonic cycle, 32, 45, 99-100, 189, 192

  Meyerhoff, Hans, 183

  Michelangelo, 111, 134

  Michelet, J., 150

  Middle Ages, 71-86, 101-11, 183-4

  Millenarianism, 76, 80-2, 136

  Milton, John, 136

  Mithraism, 60-1, 69

  Mohist school, 91-2

  Moltke, Helmuth von, 166

  Momigliano, A., 46-7

  -212-

  Mommsen, Theodor, 184

  monasteries, 71-2, 75-6, 101-2

  Montaigne, Michel de, 170

  Montesquieu, Baron, 148, 154

  month: unit, 16-17, 31-2

  months: names, 66; number of days in, 66-7, 93

  moon: as time indicator, 4, 16-17, 54, 70; eclipse, 31, 76; life on, 135; orbit, 144, 156 see also under lunar

  Morin, J.B., 140

  morphology, 179

  Moschion, 49

  motion, 131: laws of, 128, 153, 173

  Mount Wilson Observatory, 174

  Mudge, Thomas, 163

  Mumford, L., 110, 127, 164

  musical notation, 79

  musical scale, 40

  Mycenae, 37

  Napier, Baron, 135

  Napoleon I, 120

  natural selection, 155, 177

  Nautical Almanac, 165

  Neanderthal man: burial customs, 23

  nebular hypothesis, Laplace's, 153

  Needham, J., 89, 91, 92

  Nef, J., 83

  Nemesius, Bishop of Emesa, 43

  neoplatonism, 61

  Neugebauer, O., 26, 29

  Neumann, J. von, 181

  New Testament, 55, 57, 65, 80-1, 190

  New Year celebrations, 30, 32, 60, 163

  Newcomb, Simon, 187

  newspapers, 162

  Newton, Isaac, 82, 128-31, 141, 144, 173: laws of motion, 128, 153, 173; theory of gravitation, 128

  Nicaea, Council of, 62, 116, 190

  Nicholas of Cusa, 149

  Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm, 179

  Nilsson, M.P., 15

  Nisbet, R., 146

  Noble, J.V., 50-1

  Nones, 68, 108

  noon: origin of word, 108, 114

  Norman conquest, 75-6

  North, J.D., 104

  Northumbria, 71-3

  Nostradamus, 136

  novelty: concept, 57

  nuclear transformations, 156-7, 176

  Nuer, 9-10

  number, time and, 14, 39

  numeration: Maya system, 92-3

  numerology, triadic, 178

  Nyaya-Vaiseka, 88

  octaeteris, 45, 191

  Ohrmazd, 34-6, 39

  Old English: tenses, 13

  Old Norse year, 16

  Old Testament, 52-4, 56, 81, 131, 137 see also Daniel, Book of

  Oldenburg, Henry, 126, 131

  Olmec, 94

  Olympiads, dating by, 67

  Omar Khayyam, 188

  opposites, theory of, 38, 39

  optimism, 135, 146

  Oresme, Nicole, 121-2, 128

  orphism, 39, 40

  Osiris cult, 24-5, 29, 61

  Oswy, King, 73

  Ovid, 170

  painting, time factor in, 111-12

  palaeolithic paintings, 21

  palaeolithic rituals, 23

  palaeontology, stratigraphical, 154

  Palmer, Arnold, 114

  Palmer, John, 159

  Pareto, V.F.D., 179

  Paris Observatory, 140

  parish registers, 83

  Parmenides, 40-1

  pars pro toto method in chronology, 15

  Pascal, Blaise, 158

  Paschal controversy, 190

  Passover, 54, 70, 73, 190-1

  past, present, and future, 7, 23, 40, 65, 183: in Jewish thought, 52; in Maya thoug
ht, 95; in primitive societies, 8-9, 21

  Paston Letters, 84

  Paul, Saint, 65

  pax Romana, 59

  Pedersen, O., 65

  pendulum clock, 122-6, 140, 142

  Penfield, Wilder, 171

  Penzias, A.A., 175

  Pepys, Samuel, 112

  Perry, John, 156

  Persia, see Iran

  pessimism, 133

  -213-

  Petrarch, 85

  Petronius, 66

  Pharisees, 56

  Philip II, King of Spain, 133, 140

  Philo of Alexandria, 56

  phonograms, 22-3

  Pitt-Rivers, Augustus, General, 185

  Planck, Max, 180

  planetary theory, see Babylonian planetary theory; Copernican theory; Ptolemy of Alexandria; Newton, Isaac: theory of gravitation

  planetary week, 68-9

  planets: origin, 152-3

  Plato, 41-2, 46, 49, 61, 63, 181

  Pleiades, 16

  Plotinus, 61-2, 64

  Plumb, J.H., 91

  Plutarch, 39, 48

  Polybius, 43, 47, 58, 67

  Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna, 190

  Polycrates, Bishop of Ephesus, 190

  Pond, John, 161

  Poole, R.L., 74, 84

  posthorn, 159

  precession of the equinoxes, 36, 116, 117, 131

  prehistory, 21-4

  present, see past, present, and future

  Price, D.J. de Solla, 50-1, 99-100

  Priestley, Joseph, 147, 180

  prime meridian, 139, 168-9

  primeval fireball, 175

  primitive thought, 22-4

  progress, 177-86: concept, 31, 46, 95, 146-8; scientific and technological, 85-6, 92, 134, 180-1

  Prometheus, 49

  psychological time, 62, 64, 170

  Ptolemy of Alexandria, 15, 75, 77, 78, 189

  punctuality, 160, 166

  Pythagoras, 39, 88

  Pythagorean triangle, 56, 74

  quadrivium, 40

  quantum hypothesis, 180

  Quartodecimans, 190-1

  quartz crystal clock, 167

  Rabelais, François, 114

  Radin, P., 22

  radioactive clock, 157, 168

  radioactivity, 156-7, 176, 180

  railway time, 161

  railways, 159-62

  Raleigh, Sir Walter, 133, 138

  Ranke, Leopold von, 184

  Ray, John, 153-4

  red shift, 174

  Reformation, 137, 170, 184

  Regiomontanus, 192

  relational time, 130

  relativistic time, 172-4

  relativity: general theory, 174; special theory, 130, 173-4, 180

  Renaissance: 12th century, 75; 14th to 16th century, 111, 115-19, 133

  rest day, see holidays

  Richard of Wallingford, 86, 104

  Rigveda, 87

  'rites de passage', 74

  ritual perpetuation of the past, 25

  rituals, 10, 23-4: Egyptian, 24-5; Hindu, 87 see also burial customs

  Rivayat, 34-5

  Robertus Anglicus, 102

  rocks, chronology, 154

  Roman calendar, 66-70: seven day week, 68-9 see also Julian calendar

  Roman empire, 56-70, 71

  Rome, 47, 67-8: beginning of day, 15; concept of year, 17; seasonal hours, 27 see also Roman empire

  Romilly, J. de, 45-6

  Rousseau, Jean Jacques, 63, 148

  Royal Obervatory, Greenwich, 140, 161, 167, 169

  Royal Society of London, 140, 143

  Ruskin, John, 178

  Russell, Bertrand, 172

  Russell, John, 74-5

  Rutherford (Ernest), Lord, 157, 180

  Sabbath, 69, 70, 81, 110: origin of word, 54-5

  Sacrobosco, 102, 191

  Sadducees, 56

  St Albans clock, 104, 107

  Saint, see under name of Saint

  Salisbury, Lord, 155

  Salisbury Cathedral dock, 105

  Sallust, 58

  sand clock, 101, 164

  Sanskrit, 14

  Sautrankitas, 87

  Savigny, Friedrich von, 178

  Saxl, F., 135

  Scaliger, Joseph Justus, 137-8

  -214-

  Schlieffen plan, 166

  science: progress, 180-1

  Scientific Revolution, 122-31

  Scipio Nasica, 65

  scriptures, see New Testament; Old Testament

  Scrope, G.J.P., 171-2

  seasonal hours, see hours

  seasonal rituals, 23-4

  seeing: temporal aspects, 11

  Seneca, 31, 66

  sense of time, see time awareness

  seven ages of man, 75

  seven day week, see week as calendrical unit

  seventeenth century, 112, 122-31, 135-8

  sexagesimal system, 29, 93

  sextant, 139, 144

  shadow dock, 15, 27

  Shakespeare, William, 74, 75, 85, 119, 132

  Sheenan, Kevin, 164

  Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 179

  Shortt, W.H., 167

  Shortt free-pendulum clock, 167

  Shovel, Sir Clowdisley, 141

  sidereal time, 36, 115-16, 140

  Simmons, J., 160

  simultaneity, 129, 166-7, 172-3

  Sirius, 26, 28

  Siva, 88

  Six ages of history, 80

  sixteenth century, 83, 113-14, 132-4, 137

  Sixtus IV, Pope, 191

  Slavonic year, 16

  Smalley, B., 80

  Smith, A., 170

  Smith, John, 123

  Smith, William, 154

  social attitudes to time and history, 17-18, 107-14, 132-8, 157-70, 181-3

  social history, study of, 149, 178

  Soddy, Frederick, 157

  solar clock, see shadow clock; sundial

  solar calendar, 32, 77

  solar system, origin, 152-3

  solar time, 115, 187

  Solon, 39

  Sorel, Georges, 179

  Sosigenes, 66

  Sothic calendar, see Egyptian calendar

  Soulavie, Jean-Louis Giraud, 154

  Southern, R.W., 75-7

  speech: temporal aspect, 9-14

  Spencer, Herbert, 177

  Spengler, Oswald, 151, 179-80

  Spenser, Edmund, 85, 132-3

  Spinoza, Baruch, 137

  star clocks, 28

  stars: heliacal risings and settings, 16, 26, 28;

  transits, 28, 36, 115-16, 140

  Steiner, G., 14

  Stent, G., 180

  Steno, Nicolaus, 153

  Stoicism, 43, 48, 59

  Stonehenge, 24

  Strasbourg Cathedral clock, 105, 122, 127

  stratigraphical palaeontology, 154

  Su Sung, 89-90, 96

  Suetonius, 58

  Suger of St Denis, 76

  Sumeria, 29-30, 49, 68

  summer time, 3, 6

  sun: age, 155-7, 176

  sun clock, see shadow clock; sundial

  Sunday activities, restrictions, 33, 69, 70

  sundial, 82, 112, 123: ancient, 27, 28, 40, 50, 65, 101

  Swedenborg, Emanuel, 152-3

  Swift, Jonathan, 141

  Syme, R., 57

  systems analysis, 182

  TAI (International Atomic Time), 168

  taboo day, 70

  Tabula exemplorum, 183

  Tacitus, 58

  Tait, P.G., 156

  Taqizadah, S.H., 36

  technology: progress, 85-6, 92, 134, 180-1

  telegraphy, 162, 166

  teleology, 47, 51 see also time, teleological interpretation

  Temmer, M.J., 148

  Tennyson, Alfred, 179

  tenses, 8-9, 13-14, 186

  Tertullian, 69

  textile industry: working day, 108

  Thales of Miletus, 38r />
  theatrical costume, 158

  Theodosius, 70

  thermodynamics, second law of, 157

  thermonuclear processes, 157, 176

  Thomas, K., 110

  Thomas Aquinas, Saint, 130

  Thompson, J. E.S., 95

  Thomson, Williarn, Lord Kelvin, 155-7, 180

  Thucydides, 44, 58

  tidal friction, 156, 168

  -215-

  tides, 73

  Tiles, M., 134-5

  Timaeus of Sicily, 67

  time: and causality, 88-9; and eternity, 61-2, 130; and language, see language and time; and logic, 40-1; and motion, 42, 64, 92,128; and number, 14, 39; and the universe, 41-3, 63, 87; as a destroyer, 132-3; as a god, 34-5, 37, 61; as a judge, 38-9, 185; nature of, 50, 58-9, 63, 87, 91-2, 186; social attitudes to, 17-18, 107-14, 132-8, 157-70, 181-3; uniformity and continuity, 41, 99, 109-10, 127; teleological interpretation, 33 see also absolute time; atomistic time; becoming; cosmic time; counting; cyclical time; duration; equation of time; instant; legal time; linear time; mathematical time; past, present and future; psychological time; railway time; relational time; relativistic time; seeing, temporal aspects; sidereal time; simultaneity; solar time; speech; summer time

  time awareness, 3-10, 88, 186

  Time Ball service, 161

  time dilatation, 174

  time distortion, 5

  time measurement, 14-17, 56, 76-7, 82-6 see also astrolabes; clocks

  time's arrow, 157

  time saving, 84, 102, 110, 159

  time selling, 183

  time signal, 163, 167, 168, 169

  time wasting, 160

  time-zone system, 3, 165-6

  timekeeping, 78, 159, 164-5, 166-9: standardization, 161, 164-5, 168 see also marine chronometer; punctuality

  timetables, 113, 160

  Tompion, Thomas, 140

  Torriano, Gionallo, 107

  Torricelli, Evangelista, 128

  'Tower of the Winds', 50-1

  Toynbee, Arnold, 179

  tragedy, Greek, see Greek tragedy

  transport development, 158-62

  travel, 59, 158-62

  Trinity, 81

  Trompf, G.W., 52

  tropical year, 36, 116, 187, 189, 192

  Turgot, Anne Robert Jacques, 147

  Turing, Alan, 181

  Tuthmosis III, 27

  Tycho Brahe, 118

  Tylor, E.B., 178

  universe: age, 154, 176; clock-like, 120-2, 127-31, 185; cyclical, 42-3, 92, 132-3, 157, 185; evolution, 152-7; expansion, 174-6; rotation (Plato), 49 see also cosmogony; time and the universe; for models of the universe, see astronomical clocks

  Uspensky, J.V., 193

  Ussher, James, 131

  UTC (Coordinated Universal Time), 168-9

  Van Seters, J., 54

  Varro, 67, 68

  Vasari, Giorgio, 134

  Vedas, 60, 88

  Venus in Maya calendar, 94

  verge-and-foliot escapement, see escapement

  Veritas filia temporis, 135

  Vermaseren, M.J., 61

  Verne, Jules, 4

  Vic, Henri de, 110, 121

  Vico, Giambattista, 148-51, 152, 178

 

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