Guantánamo

  103 José Guio y Sanchez y Maria Dolores Higueras, eds., Cuba Ilustrada: Real Comisión de Guantánamo a la Isla de Cuba, 1796–1802 (Barcelona: Lunwerg Editores, 1991), 43, 53.

  104 Ibid., 53–65.

  105 Ibid., 66–67.

  106 Guerra Valiente, Las Huellas del Génesis, 23–25; Guio y Dolores, eds., Cuba Ilustrada, 67.

  107 Guio y Dolores, eds., Cuba Ilustrada, 72–73, 142–43.

  108 Guerra Valiente, Las Huellas del Génesis, 27–29; Imilcy Balboa Navarro, “Guantánamo: de las Tierras del Rey a la Propiedad Contractual,” in Josef Opatrný, ed., Cambios y Revoluciones en el Caribe Hispano de los Siglos XIX y XX (Praga: Editorial Karolinum, 2003), 133–35. Impatience with Spain’s refusal to invest in Guantánamo Bay and other ports in Cuba was not limited to Spanish colonists and government officials. Nearly fifty years after Mopox, the editor of the U.S. periodical De Bow’s Review lamented the empty and undeveloped state of Cuba’s many promising harbors. “A great many of these fine harbors, where magnificent cities would long since have sprung up under a good government, are to this day places as deserted as when the isle was first discovered—360 years ago. There is now not even a fisherman’s hut on their shores” (14, no. 2 [Feb. 1853]: 93).

  2 THE NEW FRONTIER

  1 Thomas Jefferson to James Madison, Oct. 24, 1823, at www.memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/jefferson_papers. On the United States’s long dalliance with Cuba, see Louis A. Pérez, Cuba and the United States: Ties of Singular Intimacy (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2003), 39–54 and passim.

  2 On early British forays into the backcountry, see Eric Hinderaker and Peter C. Mancall, At the Edge of Empire: The Backcountry in British North America (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), 92–97 and chap. 5.

  3 Born at Shadwell, Jefferson lived at the Randolph estate at Tuckahoe, along the banks of the James River, north of Richmond, for seven years starting in 1745. He returned to Shadwell at age nine. See Monticello website, www.monticello.org.

  4 See query 2, A note on rivers, in Merrill D. Peterson, ed., Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia (New York: Library of America, 1984), 133–139, available at etext.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/JefVirg.html.

  5 John Quincy Adams, Writings of John Quincy Adams (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1917), 373.

  6 Note 2, query 4, on mountains, from Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia (Richmond: J. W. Randolph, 1853), 215. Jefferson was wrong about the origin of the Gulf of Mexico; see chap. 1.

  7 Quoted in Paul Calore, The Causes of the Civil War (New York: McFarland, 2008), 200.

  8 Peter S. Onuf, Jefferson’s Empire: The Language of American Nationhood (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 2000), 7, 60.

  9 The great statement of this argument is Federalist 10; Onuf, Jefferson’s Empire, 54; Drew R. McCoy, The Elusive Republic: Political Economy in Jeffersonian America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980); and William Appleman Williams, Empire as a Way of Life (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980), 39, 47.

  10 Onuf, Jefferson’s Empire, 80, 82.

  11 First Inaugural Address; Onuf, Jefferson’s Empire, 132.

  12 Onuf, Jefferson’s Empire, 58.

  13 Franklin W. Knight, “The Haitian Revolution,” American Historical Review 105, no. 1 (Feb. 2000): 103–108; Tim Matthewson, “Jefferson and Haiti,” Journal of Southern History 61, no. 2 (May 1995): 211–13; and Susan Buck-Morss, “Hegel and Haiti,” Critical Inquiry 26, no. 4 (Summer 2000): 821–37.

  14 Knight, “The Haitian Revolution,” 107–108; Matthewson, “Jefferson and Haiti,” 211–13.

  15 Matthewson, “Jefferson and Haiti,” 232–33.

  16 Hugh Thomas, Cuba, or the Pursuit of Freedom (New York: Da Capo, 1998), 77.

  17 Thomas, Cuba, 75–80; Louis A. Pérez, Jr., Cuba: Between Reform and Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 70–75.

  18 Ladislao Guerra Valiente, Las Huellas del Génesis: Guantánamo Hasta 1870 (Guantánamo: Editorial el Mar y Montaña, 2004), 41; Jacobo de la Pezuela, Diccionario geográfico, estadístico, histórico de la isla de Cuba, tomo 2 (Madrid: Imprenta del Establecimiento de Mellado, 1863), 497.

  19 Oscar Zanetti and Alejandro García, Sugar and Railroads: A Cuban History, 1837–1959 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 66–67.

  20 “Annual Report on Foreign Commerce for the Year Ended September 1865,” Guantánamo—Francis Badell, Consular Agent, 38 Congress, 2nd sess., serial set vol. 1227, sess. no. 11.

  21 Guerra Valiente, Las Huellas del Génesis, 44–53.

  22 Ibid., 64–65.

  23 Thomas Jefferson, Second Inaugural Address, March 5, 1805, Avalon Project, Yale University, at avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/jefinau2.asp.

  24 On the melting pot, see Jonathan M. Hansen, The Lost Promise of Patriotism: Debating American Identity, 1890–1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003), 98–99.

  25 Thomas Jefferson to the Miami, Potawatomi, Delaware, and Chipeway, Dec. 21, 1808, in Andrew Adgate Lipscomb, ed., The Writings of Thomas Jefferson (Charleston, S.C.: Nabu Press, 2010), 439; Onuf, Jefferson’s Empire, 51.

  26 Walter L. Williams, “United States Indian Policy and the Debate over Philippine Annexation: Implications for the Origins of American Imperialism,” Journal of American History 66, no. 4 (March 1980): 811–27; Hansen, The Lost Promise of Patriotism, chap. 1.

  27 Williams, Empire as a Way of Life, 69; Zoltan Vajda, “Thomas Jefferson on the Character of an Unfree People: The Case of Spanish America,” American Nineteenth Century History 8, no. 3 (Sept. 2007): 273–92.

  28 Williams, Empire as a Way of Life, 65.

  29 Thomas Jefferson to James Monroe, Oct. 24, 1823, Thomas Jefferson Papers, Library of Congress.

  30 James Monroe to Thomas Jefferson, June 30, 1823, Jefferson Papers.

  31 John Quincy Adams’s Account of the Cabinet Meeting of November 7, 1823, available at www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/jqacab.htm.

  32 The Monroe Doctrine, Message of President Monroe to Congress, December 2, 1823, in Ruhl T. Bartlett, ed., The Record of American Diplomacy: Documents and Readings in the History of American Foreign Relations (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1964), 181–83.

  33 Jefferson to William Carmichael, Aug. 2, 1790, at oll.libertyfund.org/?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=803&chapter=86781&layout=html&Itemid=27); Thomas Jefferson to James Monroe, May 4, 1806, Jefferson Papers.

  34 John Quincy Adams to Hugh Nelson, April 28, 1823, in Bartlett, ed., Record of American Diplomacy, 231–34.

  35 Daniel Webster, Speech on the Panama Mission, U.S. House of Representatives, April 1826, in Robert F. Smith, ed., What Happened in Cuba? A Documentary History (New York: Twayne, 1963), 33–36.

  36 Smith, What Happened in Cuba?, 36; Louis A. Pérez, Jr., Cuba: Between Reform and Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 104–10; Thomas, Cuba, 93–105.

  37 Zanetti and García, Sugar and Railroads, 57; Ada Ferrer, Insurgent Cuba: Race, Nation, and Revolution, 1868–1898 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 2.

  38 See, for example, the intercepted letter presented to the British Parliament from a slave trader to fellow traders warning them to steer clear of Guantánamo. Philadelphia Inquirer, Aug. 13, 1825, 3.

  39 Tom Chaffin, “‘Sons of Washington’: Narciso López, Filibustering, and U.S. Nationalism, 1848–1851,” Journal of the Early Republic 15, no. 1 (Spring 1995): 93–94, 106–108.

  40 Smith, What Happened in Cuba?, 38.

  41 Ibid., 41.

  42 James Buchanan to Romulus M. Saunders, June 17, 1848, in Bartlett, Record of American Diplomacy, 234–37; Smith, What Happened in Cuba?, 39–44.

  43 William L. Marcy to Charles W. Davis, March 15, 1854, Smith, What Happened in Cuba?, 58–59, cf. 55. Cf. C. Stanley Urban, “Africanization of Cuba Scare,” Hispanic American Historical Review 37, no. 1 (Feb. 1957): 29–45.

  44 Robert E. May, Manifest Desti
ny’s Underworld: Filibustering in Antebellum America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 270–72.

  45 John Bach McMaster, A History of the People of the United States, from the Revolution to the Civil War (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1921), 133–41; Tom Chaffin, Fatal Glory: Narciso López and the First Clandestine U.S. War Against Cuba (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1996), esp. chap. 2; Robert E. May, The Southern Dream of a Caribbean Empire (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2002), 24–30.

  46 Ostend Manifesto, Oct. 18, 1854, in Smith, What Happened in Cuba?, 65.

  47 Ibid., 64.

  48 Ibid., 66.

  49 Ibid.

  50 George Fitzugh, “Destiny of the Slave States,” De Bow’s Review (Sep. 1854), in Smith, What Happened in Cuba?, 70; Maturin M. Ballou, History of Cuba, or Notes of a Traveller in the Tropics (Boston: Phillips, Sampson and Company, 1954), in Smith, What Happened in Cuba?, 72–73.

  51 W. H. Holderness to Palmerston, Sept. 22, 1854, in Gavin B. Henderson, ed., “Southern Designs on Cuba, 1854–1857, and Some European Opinions,” Journal of Southern History, 5, no. 3 (Aug. 1939): 375–76.

  52 Robert Steven Levine, Martin Delany, Frederick Douglass, and the Politics of Representative Identity (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), 201–204.

  53 Delany’s planning did not advance far—in the nonfiction world, that is; see Martin Delany, “Annexation of Cuba,” North Star, April 27, 1849. It advanced considerably in his novel Blake, or the Huts of Africa (Boston: Beacon Press, 1970), part 2. See also James T. Campbell, Middle Passages: African American Journeys to Africa, 1787–2005 (New York: Penguin Books, 2006), 72–76.

  54 Sean Wilentz, “Who Lincoln Was,” The New Republic, July 15, 2009, 24–47.

  55 In the immediate antebellum era, annexationist sentiment on Cuba did not cut strictly along sectional lines; see McMaster, A History of the People of the United States, 139.

  56 “Our Guantánamo Correspondence,” Weekly Herald (New York), Dec. 12, 1857, 1.

  57 “The Slave Trade,” Chicago Tribune, July 9, 1860, 2.

  58 Bradley Michael Reynolds, “Guantánamo Bay, Cuba: The History of an American Naval Base and Its Relationship to the Formulation of United States Foreign Policy and Military Strategy Toward the Caribbean, 1895–1910,” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Southern California, 1982, 22.

  59 Ferrer, Insurgent Cuba, 15–17.

  60 Ibid., 47–56.

  61 Ulysses S. Grant, Annual Message to Congress, Dec. 7, 1875, in Smith, What Happened in Cuba?, 82–84; Smith, What Happened in Cuba?, 85–87; Pérez, Cuba, 129–35; and Thomas, Cuba, 271–72.

  62 Henry Cabot Lodge, “Our Blundering Foreign Policy,” Forum (March 1895): 8.

  63 Smith, What Happened in Cuba?, 85–87; Pérez, Cuba, 135–38; Thomas, Cuba, 272–80; and Ferrer, Insurgent Cuba, 93–99, 112–15.

  64 Roosevelt quoted in Hansen, The Lost Promise of Patriotism, 22–23. Cf. Williams, “United States Indian Policy,” 816–26.

  65 Walter LaFeber, “A Note on the ‘Mercantilist Imperialism’ of Alfred Thayer Mahan,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 48, no. 4 (March 1962): 674–85.

  66 Alfred Thayer Mahan, “The United States Looking Outward,” The Interest of America in Sea Power, Present and Future (Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1897), 4–17; and Mahan, “Hawaii and Our Future Sea Power,” in The Interest of America, 35–36.

  67 Mahan, “Hawaii and Our Future Sea Power,” 52; Mahan, “The Strategic Features of the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea,” in The Interest of America, 280–82; and Mahan, “A Twentieth-Century Outlook,” in The Interest of America, 261.

  68 Mahan, “The United States Looking Outward,” 9–17.

  69 Alfred Thayer Mahan, “A Twentieth-Century Outlook,” in The Interest of America, 261, 226.

  70 “Poor Spain in a Worry,” New York Times, March 17, 1895, 17.

  3 INDEPENDENCE DAY

  1 “The Sunday at Camp McCalla,” correspondence of the New York Journal, in The Spanish-American War: The Events as Described by Eye Witnesses (Chicago: Herbert S. Stone & Company, 1899), 94–95.

  2 Stephen Crane, “Marines Signaling Under Fire at Guantanamo,” McClure’s Magazine (February 1899), 332.

  3 Alex Szarazgat, De la Conquista a la Revolución, tomo 2 (Buenos Aires: Nuestra America, 2005), 12; Louis A. Pérez, Jr., Cuba: Between Reform and Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), chap. 6; Hugh Thomas, Cuba, or the Pursuit of Freedom (New York: Da Capo, 1998), 264–309; and Philip S. Foner, The Spanish- Cuban-American War and the Birth of American Imperialism, vol. 1 (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1972), chap. 1.

  4 Philadelphia Inquirer, Feb. 27, 1895, 1.

  5 Sioux City Journal, Feb. 27, 1895, 1.

  6 New York Times, Feb. 28, 1898, 5; New York Times, March 5, 1895, 5. Throughout the insurgency, Times articles continued to anticipate its demise long after evidence rendered such anticipations absurd, if not fraudulent.

  7 The Daily Picayune, Feb. 27, 1895, 7. Similar reports occurred throughout U.S. newspapers; see, for example, The Trenton Times, Feb. 27, 1895, 4; Boston Daily Journal, Feb. 28, 1895, 1; Idaho Daily Statesman, Feb. 28, 1895, 3; and The Kansas City Star, Feb. 28, 1895, 6, the last of which, perhaps taking Spanish accounts of events in Cuba at face value, announced that “a very small revolution” in Cuba had been “dispersed easily.”

  8 Edwin T. Atkins, Sixty Years in Cuba (Cambridge, Mass.: The Riverside Press, 1926), 151–52.

  9 Ibid., 138–40.

  10 Ibid., 158; “Cuba’s Rare Insurgents,” New York Times, April 23, 1895, 5.

  11 New York Times, May 3, 1895, 5.

  12 Grover Cleveland, “American Interests in the Cuban Revolution,” Papers Relating to Foreign Affairs, 1896, xxvii–lxii, available at www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/gc26.htm.

  13 Gómez’s two proclamations of July and November 1895 are available at www.historyofcuba.com/history/time/timetbl2b.htm#sca.

  14 Weyler quoted in Pérez, Cuba: Between Reform, 165.

  15 Wheeling Register, Jan. 19, 1896, 1.

  16 Pérez, Cuba: Between Reform, 174.

  17 Column from The New York World, reprinted in The Kansas City Star, June 29, 1896, 5.

  18 See President Cleveland: “If Spain still holds Havana and the seaports and all the considerable towns, the insurgents still roam at will over at least two-thirds of the inland country. If the determination of Spain to put down the insurrection seems but to strengthen with the lapse of time and is evinced by her unhesitating devotion of largely increased military and naval forces to the task, there is much reason to believe that the insurgents have gained in point of numbers and character and resources, and are none the less inflexible in their resolve not to succumb without practically securing the great objects for which they took up arms.” President Grover Cleveland to Congress, Dec. 7, 1896. Papers Relating to Foreign Affairs, 1896, xxvii–lxii, U.S. Department of State, Washington, D.C.

  19 Pérez, Cuba: Between Reform, 168–75.

  20 Emory W. Fenn, “Ten Months with the Cuban Insurgents,” The Century Magazine 56, no. 2 (June 1898): 307.

  21 Ibid., 176.

  22 President Cleveland to Congress, Dec. 7, 1896, Papers Relating to Foreign Affairs, 1896, U.S. Department of State, Washington, D.C., xxvii–lxii.

  23 General Máximo Gómez to President Grover Cleveland, Feb. 9, 1897, available at www.historyofcuba.com/history/gomez4.htm.

  24 Herald story published in the Bismarck (North Dakota) Daily Tribune, Dec. 31, 1897, 1.

  25 Undersecretary of War Joseph C. Breckenridge to U.S. Army commander Lieutenant General Nelson A. Miles, Dec. 7, 1897, in Pichardo Viñals, Documentos para la Historia de Cuba, 513–14, available at www.historyofcuba.com/history/bmemo.htm.

  26 Thomas, Cuba, 360–62.

  27 Pérez, Cuba: Between Reform, 176–78; Thomas, Cuba, 372–81.

  28 Thomas, Cuba, 376.

  29 Lars Schoultz, Be
neath the United States: A History of U.S. Policy Toward Latin America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998), 139.

  30 Estrada y Palma handed Janney a $2-million Cuban bond (6 percent interest), which, discounted in the United States, was worth half that. See Thomas, Cuba, 376; David F. Healy, The United States in Cuba, 1898–1902: Generals, Politicians, and the Search for Policy (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1963), 26–27; and John Offner, An Unwanted War: The Diplomacy of the United States and Spain over Cuba, 1895–1898 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), 189.

  31 Louis A. Peréz Jr., The War of 1898: The United States and Cuba in History and Historiography (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 39–40; and Peréz, Cuba: Between Reform, 179.