[Boiling – French: bouillir German: sieden Italian: fare bollire Spanish: hacer hervir]
Boiling points of water under pressure
BOLETUS. See cèpe.
BOLOGNA is the home of the *mortadella, but the name of the city is also used, particularly in the US, to mean a sausage of finely ground pork and beef that has been smoked and sometimes also simmered.
BOMBAY DUCK or bummalo (Harpodon neherius) are small, semi-transparent, peculiarly shaped fishes, which live mainly in the Arabian Sea off the west coast of India, although they migrate elsewhere in search of food. They are fished from the end of the monsoon (October) to the end of January and are so plentiful (second only to mackerel) that only some 20% of the catch is eaten fresh. The rest is hung on racks on the beaches to dry in the hot tropical sun. The smell (mingled with drying ribbon fish and sandy mixtures of whitebait and prawns spread on mats) is like a fish-glue factory in full spate. It blows through the fishing villages of the Bombay coast: you can smell it on the breeze amongst the coconut palms or across the black mud of mangrove-bordered creeks. And this picturesque smell invades the kitchens of curry addicts the world over because Bombay duck is not only eaten around Bombay, but is exported. The dried fish is usually sold abroad in flat tins or packets. It keeps for a long time, provided it is kept dry and is usually eaten as a curry adjunct, either crisped in the oven or fried to the point where it can be crumbled over the rice. Some even like it as a cocktail snack with drinks. An excellent product for the many who like a high-fish taste.
BONAVIST BEAN. See lablab bean.
BONDIOLA. See coppo.
BONE forms the skeleton of vertebrate animals, apart from some fish, such as *sharks, which have skeletons of cartilage. Over half the weight of bones consists of calcium phosphate, an insoluble substance which is not broken down by boiling. The other main component of bone is collagen, a fibrous protein which gives it tensile strength. Boiling turns collagen into soluble gelatine, which will form a jelly on cooling. *Marrow bones of mammals are tubular, with soft marrow in the middle – they are limb bones, which need to resist bending, against which a tubular structure is mechanically the most effective. Many of the bones in birds have their cavities connected to the lungs so that they are filled with air, which makes for more efficient breathing and a lighter skeleton, both important in flying.
Closely attached to bone is a tough sheath, the periosteum, to which the tendons are attached. Bones, together with their accompanying cartilage and connective tissue (gristle), are used in cooking to make *stock. Bone is very dense, although it does contain canals connecting the cells and holes through which nerves and blood vessels pass. Extraction of soluble substances in stock making is therefore helped if the bones are well broken up with a hammer before boiling.
An important and often neglected use for bones is to keep food away from the bottom of the pan; this prevents sticking and at the same time makes a contribution to the flavour. For instance, chopped bones are used to cover the bottom of the pan under a pork roast in Austria and under stuffed vine leaves in Lebanon. This is a most useful practice, with many applications.
[Bone – French: os German: Knochen Italian: osso Spanish: hueso]
BONITO. Cooks and zoologists often fail to agree on the classification of fishes. Thus, the name bonito covers a number of distinct species, of which two are of culinary importance. The bonito or Atlantic bonito (Sarda sarda) is a larger relative of the mackerel – up to 70 cm (27 in) long and thus big enough to be sold cut into steaks for grilling. lt has stripes along its back and is found in the Black Sea, the Mediterranean and both sides of the Atlantic. The skipjack (Katsuwonus pelamis), otherwise known as the Oceanic, California or Pacific bonito, is a smaller relative of the tuna – up to 80 cm (31 in) long. It has stripes along the belly and occurs in both the Atlantic and the Pacific; in the Mediterranean, it is mainly caught on the North African coast. It is cooked in the same way as other species of *tuna and emanates from Pacific canneries as tuna (or more precisely as skipjack tuna). In Japan, the skipjack is called katsuo, and dried fillets (katsuobushi) are a basic necessity in the preparation of foundation stocks or dashi which are made from *seaweed (kombu), shavings of katsuobushi and *monosodium glutamate (ajinomoto).
BOQUERONES. *Anchovies in Spanish, but usually referring to the fillets pickled in salt and vinegar – a popular Spanish snack. They are white and are commonly sold in boxes or loose by weight in markets. Anyone who likes roll-mops will like boquerones.
BORAGE (Baraga officinalis) is a herb that gives its name to a whole family, the Boraginaceae. lt has a beautiful blue flower and is easily grown (it self-seeds) in any warm situation. A common wild flower of southern Europe, it is also found on chalk downs in southern England (where it was introduced by the Romans). Borage has a cucumber flavour and is a traditional part of the decorative garden put into a Pimms. lt can be used in other drinks, but, to be frank, it will, if grown, be used mainly as decoration. The plant is very hairy, can hurt fingers and must be finely chopped if used in salads; it is considerably more trouble than cucumber. The best use for it is to boil it like spinach to make a stuffing for ravioli (as they do in Liguria) or to dip it in batter and fry it; both ways get rid of the prickly hairs. The flowers can be candied. Borage is reputed by herbalists to be very healthy and to give one courage, which, if true, could sometimes be useful.
[Borage – French: bourrache German: Boretsch, Gurkenkraut Italian: borraggine, borana Spanish: borraja]
BORECOLE. See kale.
BORIC ACID. See preservatives.
BORLOTTI BEAN. A variety of *kidney bean. BORNHOLMERE. See herring.
BOTARGO, botarega, botargue or poutarg. Botargo, from the Arab batarkhah or batarekh, is the salted, pressed, dried female roe of either the tunny or the Striped Grey mullet. It is an old eastern Mediterranean delicacy, known even in ancient Egypt and still popular in that country; it is also a favourite in Italy; the Greek *tarama is virtually the same. In Britain, though it was popular in the 17th century, mentioned in Pepys’ Diary (he was eating it with bread as a blotting paper during a heavy night’s drinking) and served at James II’s coronation, it is not well known today. In Victorian times, they called it poutarg (from the French). Today it is usually botargo and may be bought from shops which sell Levantine or Italian foods. If it is made from tunny roes, the pieces can weigh up to 7 kg (about 16 lb) – though usually from 2 to 5 kg (4½ to 11 lb) – and they look like large, square-sectioned sausages. When made from mullet roe, the pieces are much smaller, and usually each piece is squashed flat to only a few centimetres thick. The roes are in pairs, each one in its original membrane, and have usually been dipped in preservative wax. The colour varies between rose pink, dirty brown and translucent amber. Botargo is expensive and may be bought in the piece, by weight, sliced or packed as slices in oil. It is eaten as an hors d’oeuvre, meze, or snack with drinks. It can be served alone or with oil, which may be combined with a little vinegar or lemon juice plus freshly-ground black pepper or a pinch of finely-chopped parsley or cayenne pepper, according to taste. In Italy it is also grated over pasta or rice.
Botargo from tuna. This, as an example, is the Sicilian method. The roes are carefully removed, so as not to damage the membrane around them and they are put on a long table, covered with salt and left there for 2 days. Then a funnel is inserted into the duct and the sacs containing the roes are filled and irrigated several times with saturated brine. After that the roes are put into dry salt and left for another 2 days. When the salt is changed the next time, a clean board is placed on top and lightly weighted with stones. From then on, the salt is changed every day and the weight gradually increased, the only variation being that, after the first day, the sacs are pricked with beechwood skewers to promote drainage. The daily change of salt and increase in pressure is continued until the roe is completely impregnated, a period which varies according to size. When judged ready, the roes are washed in water and hung in a current of a
ir to dry.
Botargo from grey mullet. The species of Grey mullet used for botargo is not usual in British waters, but in the US it is called the Striped or Black mullet (Mugil cephalus). Botargo from mullet is mainly made in Corsica, Sardinia and Tunisia, as well as in Egypt and Turkey. The following method is used in Sardinian homes. The roes are removed in pairs without breaking or puncturing the sacs. The pairs of roe are then well salted, pressed between boards and left for 2-3 days under a 5 kg (11 lb) weight. The roes, when pressed, are about 18 cm (7 in) long and 2 cm (¾ in) thick. After salting, they are hung in the shade to dry and when ready are dipped for an instant in molten wax. They must not be dried so much that they become powdery. In A Book of Middle Eastern Food (Penguin), Claudia Roden gives details of a botargo made from the frozen mullet roes which are sold out of barrels in Canada. As always, the membrane must be free from holes. The roes are rolled in fine kitchen salt and laid on absorbent paper. The salt is changed and the roes are turned whenever the papers become wet. This process continues until weeping stops altogether. Drying in air and dipping in wax is as before, or the botargo may be kept in the refrigerator in polythene bags.
BOTTLED SAUCES. Certain bottled sauces are commonly used as ingredients and flavourings in cooking, among them *tabasco, *tomato and *Worcestershire sauces. Most of the recipes for commercial sauces are trade secrets and may depend on the special quality of ingredients. It is not difficult to make good bottled table sauces at home (see ketchups).Those based on vinegar, salt and spices improve with maturation and keep almost indefinitely.
BOTTLING. The word covers filling bottles with liquids such as wine and preserving foodstuffs in glass jars under sterile conditions.
Filling bottles (mainly for wine).Try to get hold of the right bottles for the job. To force wine corks into bottles made without suitably strong necks is asking for trouble. Red wine should be put into dark bottles, unless it is certain to be kept in the dark. Uniform and correct bottles, properly labelled, also have aesthetic appeal. Bottles must be scrupulously clean inside. Stubborn deposits at the bottom may be removed by swishing round lead shot, fine gravel or sand with water, and a bottle brush deals with the neck. After cleaning, bottles must be thoroughly rinsed and inspected by holding them to the light and peering down the neck. Some advocate a final rinse in a sterilizing solution made with *Campden tablets, but this is hardly necessary. After washing, bottles should be stacked neck down to drain and dry. This keeps out bacteria, yeasts and dust. Bottles should be filled to leave only a small space between the surface and the cork (2 cm or ¾ in). New corks of good quality are best and should first be soaked in boiled water for 24 hours to soften them. If old corks have to be used, they must be in good condition – not pierced by the corkscrew – and should be boiled to sterilize them. Plastic stoppers are likely to pop out. Corks and stoppers may be tied down with string or wired. Bottles should be stored on their sides to keep the corks wet and swollen, so that they will not dry out and admit air and bacteria.
Preserving food in jars is essentially the same as canning and depends on complete sterilization by heat, and hermetic sealing. Bottling is a more expensive method than canning (manufacturers prefer cans where possible), but it is the popular home method as it requires a minimum of apparatus, and the bottles can be used over again indefinitely. As a technique, it is not very old – there is little mention of bottling in cookery books even as late as the turn of this century, when the older methods of preservation were still popular – salting, potting under fat, drying, and conserving with sugar. In fact, bottling followed on the work of Nicolas Appert (1749-1841) who was the first – under the spur of the Napoleonic Wars – to patent a method of preserving foods by heating and sealing them in cans or jars. The technique was improved around 1850 by Chevalier Appert, who added heating in a water bath under pressure to the existing technique. One cannot call it sterilization as the word was not yet invented – it was not until 1854 that Louis Pasteur began his famous work on fermentation, which demonstrated the role of *micro-organisms. Thereafter, progress was rapid. Before home-bottling could become popular, suitable jars with reliable seals had to be available at a reasonable price. This did not happen overnight. Today there are several alternative methods of closure – screw tops, clip tops, wired tops – and the seal of rubber or plastic makes an air-tight joint with the glass. Yet there are still countries, even in Europe, where jars for bottling are not commonly available or are imported at a price which prohibits their use by the poorer people who would most benefit from them.
Packing. There are two methods used in bottling, the hot pack and the cold pack. In the hot pack, which is the older method, the foods are cooked first, then put into heated sterilized jars and sealed immediately. The jars may sometimes need heat treatment after that. As the hot-pack method is liable to damage the form and texture of the food, the cold-pack method is generally preferred today. In foods where the form does not matter, such as purées, sauces and creamed corn, the hot-pack method may actually be preferable. Heat travels to the centre of jars of solidly-packed, dense or viscous food rather slowly, and it may therefore be better to do the cooking in an open pan where the product can be stirred.lt seems silly to let purées, which have to pass through a sieve after cooking, get cold and then heat them up again for sterilization.
In the cold-pack method, the fruit or vegetables are arranged in the jar raw (or at most partly cooked if they are inclined to shrink with heat), then cooked and sterilized in one operation in the sealed jar. In practice, jars with a lid held by a screw ring – which is not flexible – must be screwed tight and loosened half a turn to allow any pressure build-up to escape. They are tightened again after being taken out of the sterilizing bath.
Liquids in bottling. Fruits are usually packed in syrup. As a general rule, a strong syrup helps preserve taste, colour and texture (obviously also, more sugar is necessary for very sour fruit).In commercial practice, the best grades are packed in 40-60% syrups, the cheap grades in as low as 10%. A few fruits, which may be wanted sour, can be packed in plain water. Sugar syrups are prepared as a percentage sugar to water by weight. (100 g or 4 oz of sugar in lt or 2 pt of water is a 10% syrup. So also is 450 g or 1 lb of sugar in 4½ It or 8 pt.) Anyone who does a lot of bottling will find a Brix *hydrometer useful. A rough home system is to use equal volume measures (e.g. cups) of sugar and water for a heavy syrup, 1:2 of sugar to water for a medium syrup and 1:3 of sugar to water for a light one.
Vegetables, on the other hand, are commonly packed in a very light brine (2% is usual), but some are packed in water. A home method is to add a teaspoon of salt to each litre (or quart) jar before filling with water.
Preparation. Fruits and vegetables for bottling (or canning) should be in good condition – fresh, undamaged and unbruised. They need to be cleaned, de-stalked, peeled, cut in bits, stoned, blanched, parboiled or otherwise prepared. It is best to use a stainless steel knife. Fruits which tend to discolour in the air on cut surfaces should be put in some form of anti-oxidant solution, such as water with a *Campden tablet, lemon juice or vinegar and salt (30 g salt and 30 ml vinegar per 4 It or 2 tablespoons of each per 4 qt) until ready to fill the bottles. Peaches and tomatoes can be peeled easily after dunking in boiling water, the trade often uses boiling 1% caustic soda solution for peaches, but they have to be well washed afterwards.
Sterilization temperatures. Boiling will rapidly kill all organisms, including the heat-resistant spores of botulism if the foodstuff is sufficiently acid. This is the case with most fruits and tomatoes. In fact, sour fruit juices can be rendered sterile merely by *pasteurizing at 50-65°C (120-150°F). Not so vegetables, which are usually slightly alkaline. They cannot be sterilized by boiling, unless an acid such as lemon juice or vinegar is first added. To sterilize them without an acid, a higher temperature, such as can be reached in an autoclave or pressure cooker, is necessary. The usual pressure chosen is 0.7 kg/cm2 (10 lb/in2), which gives a temperature of 115°C (240°
F) at sea level, but some vegetables, such as spinach and Swiss chard, are more usually sterilized at 1.05 kg/cm2 (15 lb/in2) (122°C or 250°F) because of the time they take at the lower pressure.
Sterilization times. The object is to raise the temperature in the middle of the jar to the point where, if it is held for an appropriate time, all organisms are killed. In the cold-pack method, the food also has to be cooked. As it is not very practical to stick a thermometer into a sealed jar, we have to depend on times worked out by food scientists. For most cold-packed fruits, 30 minutes processing submerged in a boiling water-bath is necessary for 1 kg jars (2 pt). Half-kilogram jars (1 pt) take 5 minutes less. Vegetables (with the exception of tomatoes) are much more critical in their requirements and must always be sterilized in a pressure cooker. Only if directions are followed to the letter and the bottles are in good condition with new rings is home bottling of vegetables foolproof and safe. Cutting corners is risky.
Cook's Encyclopaedia Page 12