29. “The Internal Situation in Iraq,” cable from the Joint Chiefs of Staff to the Defense Intelligence Agency, August 4, 1987, p. 2; reproduced as 00453 in National Security Archive, ed., Iraqgate.
30. Loren Jenkins, “Iranians Detail Charges of Gas Warfare,” Washington Post, May 11, 1987, p. A1.
31. Alan Cowell, “Iraqis Are Facing a Growing War from Within,” New York Times, September 22, 1987, p. A6.
32. Meeting with Northern Bureau members and directors of the Ba’ath Party headquarters in the northern governorates; tape is dated May 26, 1988, but Middle East Watch believes the context indicates it was in fact recorded in 1987. Middle East Watch, Genocide in Iraq, p. 349.
33. Even after an Iraqi warplane fired a missile into the USS Stark in the Persian Gulf in 1987, killing thirty-seven American sailors, the Reagan administration accepted Baghdad’s claim that it was a “mistake.”
34. Middle East Watch, Genocide in Iraq, p. 105.
35. Interview with Sirwa, a Kurd living in England, in Sheri Laizer, Martyrs, Traitors and Patriots: Kurdistan After the Gulf War (London: Zed Books, 1996).
36. Kanan Makiya, Cruelty and Silence: War, Tyranny, Uprising, and the Arab World (New York: W. W. Norton, 1993), p. 137.
37. Ibid., pp. 137–138.
38. Patrick E. Tyler, “Kurdish Guerrillas Pose Growing Threat to Iraq; Rival Factions Unify, Gain Iran’s Backing,” Washington Post, February 19, 1988, p. A15.
39. “Iran Says It Has Iraqi Border City,” Washington Post, March 18, 1998, p. A19.
40. Patrick E. Tyler, “Poison Gas Attack Kills Hundreds; Iran Accuses Iraq of Atrocity in Kurdish Region Near Border,” Washington Post, March 24, 1988, p. A1.
41. Ibid.; emphasis added.
42. Theodore Stanger, “Massacre in Halabja,” Newsweek, April 4, 1988, p. 38; emphasis added.
43. Russell Watson and John Barry, “Letting a Genie out of a Bottle,” Newsweek, September 19, 1988, p. 30.
44. David B. Ottaway, “U.S. Decries Iraqi Use of Chemical Weapons: ‘Grave Violation’ of International Law Cited,” Washington Post, March 24, 1988, p. A37.
45. Jim Hoagland, “Atrocity du Jour,” Washington Post, March 26, 1988, p. A2.
46. The Halabja victims’ blue lips were thought to be attributable to cyanide gas, which U.S. intelligence did not believe Iraq possessed. Public health experts say that other gases could have caused the discoloring as well. The vehemence of some Americans that the evidence was not definitive has persisted to this day. For example, Stephen C. Pelletiere, a former U.S. intelligence officer, and two colleagues carried out a study for the U.S. Army War College in which they argued “both sides” used chemical weapons in Halabja; Stephen C. Pelletiere, Douglas V. Johnson II, and Leif R. Rosenberger, Iraqi Power and U.S. Security in the Middle East (Carlisle Barracks, Pa.: Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College, 1990). In a more recent book Pelletiere wrote: “On May 23, in fighting over the town, gas was used by both sides. As a result scores of Iraqi Kurdish civilians were killed. It is now fairly certain that Iranian gas killed the Kurds”; Stephen C. Pelletiere, The Iran-Iraq War: Chaos in a Vacuum (New York: Praeger, 1992), pp. 136–137.
47. David Ottaway, “U.S. Decries Iraqi Use of Chemical Weapons; ‘Grave Violations’ of International Law Cited,” Washington Post, March 24, 1988, p. A37.
48. David Ottaway, “In Mideast, Warfare with a New Nature,” Washington Post, April 5, 1988, p. A1.
49. “The Gulf: The Battle, the War,” Washington Post, April 20, 1988, p. A20.
50. “Baghdad’s Repressive Measures Against the Kurds,” cable from the Joint Chiefs of Staff to the Defense Intelligence Agency, April 19, 1988, p. 2; reproduced as 00555 in National Security Archive, ed., Iraqgate.
51. Middle East Watch, Genocide and Iraq, p. 232.
52. Ibid., p. 245.
53. Ibid., p. 17.
54. Makiya, Cruelty and Silence, p. 187.
55. Ibid., pp. 193–194.
56. Ibid., p. 195.
57. Middle East Watch, Genocide and Iraq, pp. 252–258; Makiya, Cruelty and Silence, pp. 176–199.
58. In a brief item, the New York Times picked up the claim; “Iraq Says It Routed Iranians and Kurds in Fight in Northeast,” New York Times, April 3, 1988, section 1, p. 14.
59. Elaine Sciolino, “Kurdish Chief Gains Support in U.S. Visit,” New York Times, June 22, 1988, p. A3. In fact, Talabani’s alliance with Iran had predated Hussein’s latest campaign of destruction.
60. State Department briefing, Federal News Service, June 15, 1988.
61. Senate Resolution 408, “Condemnation of the Use of Chemical Weapons by Iraq,” Congressional Record, 100th Cong., 2nd sess., 1988, 134, pt. 95:58533.
62. Elaine Sciolino, “How the U.S. Cast off Neutrality in Gulf War,” New York Times, April 24, 1988, sec. 4, p. 2.
63. Robert Pear, “Khomeini Accepts ‘Poison’ of Ending War with Iraq; U.N. Sending Mission,” New York Times, July 21, 1988, p. A1.
64. Estimates of the total number of lives lost during the Iran-Iraq war range from 450,000 to 730,000 on the Iranian side and from 150,000 to 340,000 on the Iraqi side. Anthony H. Cordesman and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, vol. 2: The Iran-Iraq War (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1990), p. 3.
65. Alan Cowell, “A Gulf Truce Leaves Rebels in a Quandary,” New York Times, August 28, 1988, sec. 1, p. 15; Elaine Sciolino, “Iraqis Reported to Mount Drive Against Kurds,” New York Times, September 1, 1988, p. A1.
66. Kenneth Roth, Executive Director, Human Rights Watch memo to officials in one European foreign ministry, Washington, D.C., on “Proposed ICJ Action Against Iraq on Basis of Genocide Convention,” September 30, 1994, p. 6.
67. “More Chemical Attacks Reported,” New York Times, August 28, 1988, sec. 1, p. 15.
68. See text of S.2763, Congressional Record, 100th Cong., 2nd sess., 1988, 134, pt. 123:S12137-S12138.
69. Muhyeddin Abdula, one of the Kurdish nationals who staged the strike, told the New York Times, “We could have done other things, maybe hijack an airplane, but we don’t think that is nice”; Clyde F. Farnsworth and Irvin Molotsky, “Washington Talk; Briefing; To Hijack or Fast?” New York Times, September 19, 1988, p. A18.
70. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Chemical Weapons Use in Kurdistan: Iraq’s Final Offensive, 100th Cong., 2nd sess., 1988, S. Prt. 100–148:40.
71. Morton Abramowitz, “Swan Song for Iraq’s Kurds?” top secret cable from Assistant Secretary of State for Intelligence and Research Morton Abramowitz to Secretary of State George Shultz, September 2, 1988, pp. 2–3; reproduced as 00625 in National Security Archive, ed., Iraqgate.
72. “Iraqi Attacks on Kurds,” secret cable from Secretary of State George Shultz to the U.S. embassy in Baghdad, September 3, 1988, p. 3; reproduced as 00626 in National Security Archive, ed., Iraqgate.
73. “Iraqi Attacks on Kurds,” secret cable from the U.S. embassy in Baghdad to Secretary of State George Shultz, September 4, 1988, section 2, pp. 1–2, and section 1, pp. 2–3; reproduced as 00627 in National Security Archive, ed., Iraqgate. Internal cable traffic from early September onward takes the following facts as given: “After ceasefire Iraq began major campaign to crush Kurdish rebellion by depopulating countryside, including [chemical weapons] use, mass deportations/executions.” See “Your Treaty with Iraqi Minister of State for Foreign Affairs Saadoun Hammadi, Thursday, September 8, 1988 at 4:15 P.M.,” secret briefing memorandum from Assistant Secretary of State for Near Eastern and South Asian Affairs Richard Murphy to Secretary of State George Shultz, September 7, 1988, p. 3; reproduced as 00628 in National Security Archive, ed., Iraqgate.
74. State Department briefing, Federal News Service, September 6, 1988. State Department spokespersons Oakley and Redman said they had no information on August 25, August 31, September 1, September 2, September 6, and September 7. Redman’s briefing was picked up also in the Washington Post: David B. Ottaway, “U.S. Concern Is Expressed to Baghdad; Confi
rmation Lacking on Chemical Attacks,” Washington Post, September 7, 1988, p. A24.
75. Jonathan C. Randal, “Refugees Travel Deeper into Turkey to Escape Iraqi Troops,” Washington Post, September 5, 1988, p. A19; Alan Cowell, “Fleeing Assault by Iraqis, Kurds Tell of Poison Gas and Lives Lost,” New York Times, September 5, 1988, p. A1.
76. Clyde Haberman, “Kurds’ Symptoms: Gas or Poor Diet?” New York Times, September 12, 1988, p. A1.
77. Theodore Stanger, “‘A Recipe for Disaster,’” Newsweek, September 26, 1988, p. 38.
78. Clyde Haberman, “What Drove the Kurds out of Iraq?” New York Times, September 13, 1988, p. A6.
79. State Department briefing, Federal News Service, September 8, 1988.
80. Ibid., September 9, 1988.
81. Julie Johnson, “U.S. Asserts Iraq Used Poison Gas Against the Kurds,” New York Times, September 9, 1988, p. A1.
82. “Secretary’s Meeting with Iraqi Minister of State for Foreign Affairs Saadoun Hammadi,” secret cable from Secretary of State George Shultz to the U.S. embassy in Baghdad, September 9, 1988, p. 6; reproduced as 00633 in National Security Archive, ed., Iraqgate.
83. Patrick E. Tyler, “Iraqi Official Says Kurds Fleeing Army Operation; Envoy Denies Use of Chemical Weapons,” Washington Post, September 4, 1988, p. A33.
84. Morton Abramowitz, “Iraq’s Use of Chemical Weapons on the Kurds,” secret information memorandum from Assistant Secretary of State for Intelligence and Research Morton Abramowitz to Undersecretary of State for Political Affairs Michael Armacost, September 17, 1988, p. 2; reproduced as 00648 in National Security Archive, ed., Iraqgate.
85. Patrick E. Tyler, “Iraq Denies Using Chemical Weapons on Kurds,” Washington Post, September 16, 1988, p. A19.
86. Jim Hoagland, “Iraq Is One Place Where Sanctions Might Work,” Washington Post, September 15, 1988, p. A25.
87. Peter Galbraith, “The Tragedy of Iraqi Kurdistan: The Destruction of a People and Culture,” remarks to the international conference, “The Kurds: Human Rights and Cultural Identity,” Paris, October 14, 1989.
88. Middle East Watch, Human Rights in Iraq, p. 123, citing a letter from Nizar Hamdoon to Edward J. Van Kloberg III, August 22, 1985, as well as a disclosure statement, December 28, 1987, filed at the Department of Justice.
89. Julie Johnson, “U.S. Adamant in Charge Against Iraq,” New York Times, September 10, 1988, p. A4.
90. Patrick E. Tyler, “Kurds Disappoint Iraqi PR Effort,” Washington Post, September 18, 1988, p. A30.
91. Middle East Watch, Human Rights in Iraq, p. 109.
92. “Iraqi CW Use: Ambassador’s Meeting with Hamdun,” secret cable from the U.S. embassy in Baghdad to Secretary of State George Shultz, September 10, 1988, sec. 1, p. 3, and sec. 2, pp. 2, 3; reproduced as 00634 in National Security Archive, ed., Iraqgate.
93. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Chemical Weapons Use in Kurdistan: Iraq’s Final Offensive, pp. 14–26.
94. Abramowitz, “Iraq’s Use of Chemical Weapons on the Kurds.”
95. Congressional Record, 100th Cong., 2nd sess., 1988, 134, pt. 122:S12035.
96. Ibid., pt. 123:S12136.
97. Senator Claiborne Pell, press conference, September 21, 1988, announcing the release of Galbraith’s report for the Senate Foreign Relations Committee.
98. Legislation to Impose Sanctions Against Iraqi Chemical Use, Markup Before the Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives, 100th Cong., 2nd sess., 1988, 134, p. 15.
99. Congressional Record, 100th Cong., 2nd sess., 1988, 134, pt. 123:S12136.
100. William Safire, “Stop the Iraqi Murder of the Kurds,” New York Times, September 5, 1988, p. A21.
101. Ibid.
102. “Murder Within Sovereign Borders,” New York Times, September 5, 1988, p. A20.
103. Jim Hoagland, “Make No Mistake—This Is Genocide,” Washington Post, September 8, 1988, p. A21.
104. Jim Hoagland, “A ‘Furlough’ for Iraq,” Washington Post, October 12, 1988, p. A19; emphasis added.
105. “Too Tough on Iraq?” Washington Post, September 20, 1988, p. A20.
106. Pamela Fessler, “Congress and Iraq: A Chronology of a Decade’s Debate over Relations,” Congressional Quarterly, April 27, 1991, p. 1071.
107. “Overview of US-Iraq Relations and Political Pressure Points,” secret internal paper drafted by the Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs/North Gulf Affairs, September 9, 1988, p. 2; reproduced as 00632 in National Security Archive, ed., Iraqgate.
108. Responding to assurances from the administration that Iraq was sincere in its pledge to forswear future use, Senator Pell asked, “Can we really be expected to overlook the gassing of thousands of people on the basis of an assurance that is itself predicated on a lie?” Congressional Record, 100th Cong., 2nd sess., 1988, 134, pt. 144:S15574.
109. State Department briefing, Federal News Service, September 20, 1988.
110. Legislation to Impose Sanctions Against Iraqi Chemical Use, p. 19.
111. Ibid., p. 20.
112. James A. Baker III with Thomas M. DeFrank, The Politics of Diplomacy: Revolution, War and Peace, 1989–1992 (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1995), p. 273.
113. See, for example, “Kurdistan Resistance Forces at Peril,” cable from the Defense Intelligence Agency, October 24, 1988; reproduced as 00683 in National Security Archive, ed., Iraqgate.
114. “Overview of U.S.-Iraq Relations and Political Pressure Points,” p. 1.
115. “U.S. Policy Towards Iraq and CW Use,” secret action memorandum from Assistant Secretary of State for Near Eastern and South Asian Affairs Richard Murphy to Undersecretary of State for Political Affairs Michael Armacost, September 19, 1988, pp. 1–2, 5; reproduced as 00650 in National Security Archive, ed., Iraqgate.
116. “Overview of US-Iraq Relations and Political Pressure Points,” p. 3.
117. “After U.S. Actions, Saddam Changes His Tone,” confidential cable from the U.S. embassy in Baghdad to Secretary of State George Shultz, September 12, 1988, p. 2; reproduced as 00635 in National Security Archive, ed., Iraqgate.
118. Milton Viorst, “Poison Gas and ‘Genocide’: The Shaky Case Against Iraq,” Washington Post, October 5, 1988, p. A25.
119. “U.S. Policy Towards Iraq and CW Use,” pp. 1–2, 5.
120. George Shultz, remarks to board of directors of the General Federation of Women’s Clubs, State Department, September 9, 1988.
121. Marlin Fitzwater, press conference, Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, New York, September 26, 1988. In the event, the conference was held in Paris in January 1989, and far from censuring Iraq, the closing declaration simply reaffirmed “the importance and continuing validity” of the 1925 protocol. The Kurds themselves were barred from attending the conference, which was open only to states. And the United States ignored Human Rights Watch’s request that it raise the matter of amending the 1925 protocol so that it explicitly barred states from using chemical weapons against their own citizens. Middle East Watch, Human Rights in Iraq, pp. 112–113.
122. Patrick E. Tyler, “The Kurds: It’s Not Genocide,” Washington Post, September 25, 1988, p. A20.
123. Simande Siaband [Mehrdad Izady], “Mountains, My Home: An Analysis of the Kurdish Psychological Landscape,” Kurdish Times 2 (Summer 1988): 7, 9, cited in Michael M. Gunter, The Kurds of Iraq: Tragedy and Hope (New York: St. Martin’s, 1992), p. 35.
124. “Export-Import Financing for Iraq,” confidential action memorandum from Assistant Secretary of State for Near Eastern and South Asian Affairs Murphy, Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for Economic and Business Affairs Larson, and Assistant Secretary of State for Humanitarian Affairs Schifter to Secretary of State Shultz, December 12, 1988, p. 5; reproduced as 00739 in National Security Archive, ed., Iraqgate.
125. Developments in the Middle East, October 1988, Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Europe and the Middle East of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives, 100th Cong., 2nd sess., October
13, 1988, pp. 31 and 43. Opponents of the bill on Capitol Hill were also careful not to appear to condone Iraqi behavior. The statement of Agricultural Committee chairman E. “Kika” de la Garza (D.–Tex.) is telling. He noted that Iraq was a “large and growing market for U.S. agricultural exports. . . . In light of the difficulties that our nation’s farmers have faced over the past few years, I am deeply concerned over any possible loss of a major market for U.S. agricultural commodities. At the same time, I in no way wish to condone the use of chemical weapons by Iraq or any other country.” Congressional Record, 100th Cong., 2nd sess., 1988, 134, pt. 133:H8343.
126. And the influence of lobbies has only increased. Long past are the days when Congressman John Steven McGroarty of California would write a constituent (in 1934): “One of the countless drawbacks of being in Congress is that I am compelled to receive impertinent letters from a jackass like you in which you say I promised to have the Sierra Madre mountains reforested and I have been in Congress two months and haven’t done it. Will you please take two running jumps and go to hell.” John F. Kennedy, Profiles in Courage (New York: Harper, 1956), p. 10.
127. Walter Lippmann, The Public Philosophy (Boston: Little, Brown, 1955), p. 27.
128. Kennedy, Profiles in Courage, p. 122.
129. See Galbraith, Iraq Sanctions Legislation, p. 14. He argued that because the oil imported from Iraq was subject to an import levy, the sanctions would reduce treasury revenues, thus rendering the sanctions bill a revenue bill. In fact, since oil imports from Iraq would have been replaced by those from other countries, net import fees would not have been affected. If Rostenkowski’s claim had been carried to its logical conclusion, virtually no legislation could have originated in the Senate. Laws requiring warning labels on alcohol, for instance, would have reduced pregnant women’s liquor intake and thus lowered distilled spirits excise tax revenues.
130. Physicians for Human Rights Press Release, October 22, 1998, “Medical Team Finds Evidence of Iraqi Use of Chemical Weapons on Kurds.” On January 10, 1989, Dr. Howard Hu, one of the PHR team members, testified before Congress about the trip. And in February 1989, PHR published “Winds of Death: Iraq’s Use of Poison Gas Against Its Kurdish Population,” a lengthy, detailed report on its medical mission.
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