Lowry, Thomas P. 1978. The Classic Clitoris. Chicago: Nelson-Hall.
Lowry, Thomas P., and T. S. Lowry, eds. 1976. The Clitoris. St. Louis: Warren H. Green.
Manson, Joseph H., et al. 1997. "Nonconceptive Sexual Behavior in Bonobos and Capuchins." International Journal of Primatology 18: 767–86.
Martin, Emily. 1992. The Woman in the Body. Boston: Beacon Press.
Masters, William H., and Virginia E. Johnson. 1966. Human Sexual Response. Boston: Little, Brown.
Matteo, Sherri, and Emilie F. Rissman. 1984. "Increased Sexual Activity During the Midcycle Portion of the Human Menstrual Cycle." Hormones and Behavior 18: 249–55.
Mazur, Allan. 1998. "Testosterone and Dominance in Men." Behavioral and Brain Sciences 21: 353–97.
McClintock, Martha K. 1971. "Menstrual Synchrony and Suppression." Nature 291: 244-45.
———. 1981. "Social Control of the Ovarian Cycle and the Function of Estrous Synchrony." American Zoologist 21: 243–56.
McEwen, B. S. 1997. "Meeting Report—Is There a Neurobiology of Love?" Molecular Psychiatry 2: 15–16.
Michael, Robert T., et al. 1994. Sex in America. Boston: Little, Brown.
Michel, George F., and Celia L. Moore. 1995. Developmental Psychobiology. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Miles, Margaret R. 1986. "The Virgin's One Bare Breast: Female Nudity and Religious Meaning in Tuscan Early Renaissance Cultures." In The Female Body in Western Culture. Edited by Susan Rubin Sulerman. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Mitchell, George W., Jr., and Lawrence W. Bassett, eds. 1990. The Female Breast and Its Disorders. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins.
Modney, B. K., and G. I. Hatton. 1994. "Maternal Behaviors: Evidence That They Feed Back to Alter Brain Morphology and Function." Acta Pediatrica Supplement 397: 29–32.
Money, John. 1997. Principles of Developmental Sexology. New York: Continuum.
Morbeck, Mary Ellen, et al., eds. 1997. The Evolving Female. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
Morgan, Elaine. 1982. The Aquatic Ape. New York: Stein and Day.
———. 1994. The Scars of Evolution. New York: Oxford University Press.
———. 1995. The Descent of the Child. New York: Oxford University Press.
Morishima, A., et al. 1995. "Aromatase Deficiency in Male and Female Siblings Caused by a Novel Mutation and the Physiological Role of Estrogens." Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 80: 3689–98.
Morris, Desmond. 1967. The Naked Ape. New York: McGraw-Hill.
———. 1985. Bodywatching. New York: Crown.
———. 1994. The Human Animal. New York: Crown.
Myers, L. S., et al. "Effects of Estrogen, Androgen, and Progestin on Sexual Psychophysiology and Behavior in Postmenopausal Women." Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 70: 1124–31.
Nelson, Miriam E. 1997. Strong Women Stay Young. New York: Bantam.
Nelson, Randy J. 1995. An Introduction to Behavioral Endocrinology. Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Assoc.
Neville, Margaret C. 1987. The Mammary Gland: Development, Regulation and Function. New York: Plenum Press.
Newman, Jack. 1995. "How Breast Milk Protects Newborns." Scientific American, Dec.: 76–79.
Nicolson, Paula. 1995. "The Menstrual Cycle, Science and Femininity." Social Science and Medicine 41: 779–84.
Niemala, Pekka. 1992. "Lady Macbeth as a Problem for Shakespeare." In Of Mice and Women. Edited by K. Björkqvist and P. Niemala. San Diego: Academic Press.
Nilsson, Lennart, and Lars Hamberger. 1990. A Child Is Born. New York: Doubleday.
Nishimori, Katsuhiko, et al. 1996. "Oxytocin Is Required for Nursing But Is Not Essential for Parturition or Reproductive Behavior." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 93: 11699–704.
Nissen, E., et al. 1998. "Oxytocin, Prolactin, Milk Production and Their Relationship with Personality Traits in Women after Vaginal Delivery or Cesarean Section." Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynaecology 19: 49–58.
Nuland, Sherwin B. 1997. The Wisdom of the Body. New York: Knopf.
Ogawa, Sonoko, et al. 1997. "Behavioral Effects of Estrogen Receptor Gene Dis-ruption in Male Mice." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 94: 1476–81.
———. 1997. "Reversal of Sex Roles in Genetic Female Mice by Disruption of Estrogen Receptor Gene." Neuroendocrinology 64: 467–70.
Oliver, Mary Beth, and Janet Shibley Hyde. 1993. "Gender Differences in Sexuality: A Meta-analysis." Psychological Bulletin 114: 29–51.
Osterman, Karin, et al. 1994. "Peer and Self-Estimated Aggression and Victimization in 8-Year-Old Children from Five Ethnic Groups." Aggressive Behavior 20: 411–28.
Packer, Craig, et al. 1998. "Reproductive Cessation in Female Mammals." Nature 329: 807–11.
Palmon, Aaron, et al. 1994. "The Gene for the Neuropeptide Gonadotropin-releasing Hormone Is Expressed in the Mammary Gland of Lactating Rats." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 91: 4994–96.
Peccei, J. S. 1995. "A Hypothesis for the Origin and Evolution of Menopause." Maturitas 21: 83–89.
Pedersen, Cort A., et al., eds. 1992. Oxytocin in Maternal, Sexual, and Social Behaviors. New York: New York Academy of Sciences.
Perry, Ruth. 1992. "Colonizing the Breast." In Forbidden History. Edited by John C. Font. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Pham, K. T., et al. 1997. "Ovarian Aging and Hormone Replacement Therapy. Hormonal Levels, Symptoms, and Attitudes of African-American and White Women." Journal of General Internal Medicine 12: 230–36.
Pinker, Steven. 1997. How the Mind Works. New York: W. W. Norton.
———. 1998. "Boys Will Be Boys." The New Yorker, Feb. 9.
Plath, Sylvia. 1966. Ariel. New York: Harper and Row.
———. 1992. Letters Home: Correspondence 1950–1963. New York: HarperPerennial.
Population Council Research. 1997. "Female Genital Mutilation: Common, Controversial, and Bad for Women's Health." Population Briefs 3, no. 2.
Profet, Margie. 1993. "Menstruation as a Defense Against Pathogens Transported by Sperm." Quarterly Review of Biology 68: 335–86.
Pusey, Anne, et al. 1997. "The Influence of Dominance Rank on the Reproductive Success of Female Chimpanzees." Nature 277: 827–31.
Quakenbush, Debra M., et al. 1995. "Gender Effects of Romantic Themes in Erotica." Archives of Sexual Behavior 24: 21–35.
Redmond, Geoffrey. 1995. The Good News about Women's Hormones. New York: Warner.
Rhode, Deborah L. 1990. Theoretical Perspectives on Sexual Difference. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Rich, Adrienne. 1986. Of Woman Born. New York: W. W. Norton.
Rink, J. D., et al. 1996. "Cellular Characterization of Adipose Tissue from Various Body Sites of Women." Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 81: 2443–47.
Rissman, Emilie F., et al. 1997. "Estrogen Receptors Are Essential for Female Sexual Receptivity." Endocrinology 138: 507–10.
Rosenberg, Karen, and Wenda Trevathan. 1996. "Bipedalism and Human Birth: The Obstetrical Dilemma Revisited." Evolutionary Anthropology 4: 161–68.
Rosenthal, Elisabeth. 1991. "The Forgotten Female." Discover, Dec. 22–27.
Roth, Philip. 1995. Sabbath's Theater. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Roueche, Berton. 1996. The Man Who Grew Two Breasts. New York: Plume.
Ryan, K. J., et al., eds. 1995. Kistner's Gynecology: Principles and Practice. 6th ed. St. Louis: Mosby.
Sane, Kumud, and Ora Hirsch Pescovitz. 1992. "The Clitoral Index: A Determination of Clitoral Size in Normal Girls and in Girls with Abnormal Sexual Development." Journal of Pediatrics 120: 264–66.
Sapolsky, Robert. 1997. "Testosterone Rules." Discover, Mar.: 45–50.
Schaal, B., et al. 1996. "Male Testosterone Linked to High Social Dominance But Low Physical Aggression in Early Adolescence." Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 35: 1322–30.
Schiebing
er, Londa. 1993. Nature's Body. Boston: Beacon Press.
———. 1993. "Why Mammals Are Called Mammals: Gender Politics in Eighteenth-Century Natural History." American Historical Review 98: 382–411.
Schlinger, Barney A. 1994. "Estrogens and Song: Products of the Songbird Brain." Bioscience 44: 605–12.
Schmid, Patricia C., et al. 1997. "Changes in Anandamide Levels in Mouse Uterus Are Associated with Uterine Receptivity for Embryo Implantation." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 94: 4188–92.
Schwartz, Charles E. 1993. "X-linked Mental Retardation." American Journal of Human Genetics 52: 1025–31.
Schwartz, Lynne Sharon.'1987. The Melting Pot and Other Subversive Stories. New York: Harper and Row.
Shaw, Evelyn, and Joan Darling. 1985. Female Strategies. New York: Touchstone.
Short, R. V., and E. Balaban, eds. 1994. The Differences Between the Sexes. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Shulkin, Jay, ed. 1993. Hormonally Induced Changes in Mind and Brain. San Diego: Academic Press.
Silber, Marta. 1994. "Menstrual Cycle and Work Schedule: Effects on Women's Sexuality." Archives of Sexual Behavior 23: 397–404.
Simons, Anna. 1997. "In War, Let Men Be Men." New York Times, Apr. 23.
Singh, D. 1993. "Body Shape and Women's Attractiveness—The Critical Role of Waist-to-Hip Ratio." Human Nature 4: 297–322.
Singh, D., et al. 1998. "Frequency and Timing of Coital Orgasm in Women Desirous of Becoming Pregnant." Archives of Sexual Behavior 27: 15–29.
Skuse, D. H., et al. 1997. "Evidence from Turner's Syndrome of an Imprinted X-linked Locus Affecting Cognitive Function." Nature 387: 705–8.
Sloane, Ethel. 1993. Biology of Women. New York: Delmar.
Small, Meredith F. 1993. Female Choices. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.
———. 1995. What's Love Got to Do with It? New York: Anchor Books.
———. 1998. Our Babies, Ourselves. New York: Anchor Books.
Smith, Eric P., et al. 1994. "Estrogen Resistance Caused by a Mutation in the Estrogen-Receptor Gene in a Man." New England Journal of Medicine 331: 1056–61.
Smuts, Barbara. 1992. "Male Aggression Against Women: An Evolutionary Perspective." Human Nature 3: 1–44.
———. 1995. "Apes of Wrath." Discover, Aug. 35–37.
———. 1995. "The Evolutionary Origins of Patriarchy." Human Nature 6: 1–32.
Smuts, Barbara, and Robert W. Smuts. 1993. "Male Aggression and Sexual Coercion of Females in Nonhuman Primates and Other Mammals." Advances in the Study of Behavior 22: 1–63.
Stern, Kathleen, and Martha McClintock. 1998. "Regulation of Ovulation by Human Pheromones." Nature 392: 177–79.
Stevens, Jane E. 1995. "Hyenas Yield Clues to Human Infertility, Aggression." Technology Review, Feb.–Mar.
Strassmann, Beverly I. 1992. "The Function of Menstrual Taboos among the Dogon: Defense Against Cuckoldry?" Human Nature 3: 89–131.
———. 1996. "The Evolution of Endometrial Cycles and Menstruation." Quarterly Review of Biology 71: 181–220.
Strausz, Ivan. 1993. You Don't Need a Hysterectomy. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley.
Suplee, Curt. 1996. "Animal Researchers Transplant Sperm-producing Cells from Species to Species." Washington Post, May 30.
Symons, Donald. 1979. The Evolution of Human Sexuality. New York: Oxford University Press.
Taylor, Timothy. 1996. The Prehistory of Sex. New York: Bantam.
Tilly, Jonathan L., and Valerie'S. Ratts. 1996. "Biological and Clinical Importance of Ovarian Cell Death." Contemporary Ob/Gyn, Mar.
Tingley, Deborah. 1996. "Evolutions: Steroid-Hormone Receptor Signaling." Journal of NIH Research 8: 81–87.
Toesca, Amelia, et al. 1996. "Immunohistochemical Study of the Corpora Cavernosa of the Human Clitoris." Journal of Anatomy 188: 513–20.
Toubia, Nahid. 1994. "Female Circumcision as a Public Health Issue." New England Journal of Medicine 331: 712–16.
Townsend, John Marshall. 1995. "Sex Without Emotional Involvement: An Evolutionary Interpretation of Sex Differences." Archives of Sexual Behavior 24: 173–205.
———. 1998. What Women Want, What Men Want. New York: Oxford University Press.
Travis, John. 1997. "Brave New Egg." Discover, Apr.
Trevathan, Wenda. 1987. Human Birth: An Evolutionary Perspective. New York: de Gruyter.
Ussher, Jane. 1989. The Psychology of the Female Body. London: Routledge.
Uvnas-Möberg, Kerstin. 1994. "Role of Efferent and Afferent Vagal Nerve Activity During Reproduction: Integrating Function of Oxytocin on Metabolism and Behavior." Psychoneuroendocrinology 19: 687–95.
———. Forthcoming. "Neuroendocrinology of the Mother-Child Interaction." Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism.
Valian, Virginia. 1998. "Running in Place." The Sciences, Jan.-Feb.
———. 1998. Why So Slow? Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Verkauf, Barry'S., et al. 1992. "Clitoral Size in Normal Women." Obstetrics & Gynecology 80: 41–44.
Voda, Ann M. 1992. "Menopause: A Normal View." Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology 35: 923–33.
Wallen, Kim. 1990. "Desire and Ability: Hormones and the Regulation of Female Sexual Behavior." Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 14: 233–41.
———. 1995. "The Evolution of Female Sexual Desire." In Sexual Nature/Sexual Culture. Edited by P. R. Abramson and'S. D. Pinkerton. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
———. 1996. "Nature Needs Nurture: The Interaction of Hormonal and Social Influences on the Development of Behavioral Sex Differences in Rhesus Monkeys." Hormones and Behavior 30: 364–78.
Wederkind, Claus, et al. 1995. "MHC-dependent Mate Preferences in Humans." Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 260: 245–49.
Weller, A., and L. Weller. 1993. "Human Menstrual Synchrony: A Critical Assessment." Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 17: 427–39.
Wilcox, Allen J., et al. 1995. "Timing of Sexual Intercourse in Relation to Ovulation." New England Journal of Medicine 333: 1517— 21.
Wilson, Edward O. 1975. Sociobiology. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
———. 1996. In Search of Nature. Washington, D.C.: Island Press.
Wilson, J. D., and D. W. Foster, eds. 1992. Williams Textbook of Endocrinology. Philadelphia: Saunders.
Wilson, Robert Anton. 1974. The Book of the Breast. Chicago: Playboy Press.
Witt, Diane M. 1995. "Oxytocin and Rodent Sociosexual Responses: From Behavior to Gene Expression." Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 19: 315–24.
World Health Organization. 1994. "Female Genital Mutilation." A Committee Report.
Wright, Robert. 1994. The Moral Animal. New York: Vintage.
Yalom, Marilyn. 1997. A History of the Breast. New York: Knopf.
Zorrilla, Eric P., et al. 1995. "High Self-Esteem, Hardiness and Affective Stability Are Associated with Higher Basal Pituitary-Adrenal Hormone Levels." Psychoneuroendocrinology 20: 591–601.
Zussman, Leon, et al. 1981. "Sexual Response after Hysterectomy-Oophorectomy: Recent Studies and Reconsideration of Psychogenesis." American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 140: 725–29.
* * *
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
IN THE COURSE of doing research for this book, I have spoken with hundreds of thoughtful, eloquent, and generous people, many of them scientists and doctors who qualify as authorities, others who are simply authorities on the subject of their own bodies. I can't possibly cite by name everyone who should be thanked, but I want to express here my appreciation to all who took the time to talk with me, and speculate wildly with me, about why women's bodies are the way they are.
I am particularly beholden to the following researchers: Sarah Blaffer Hrdy, Patricia Adair Gowaty, Barbara Smuts, Nancy Burley, Kristen Hawkes, Kim Wallen, Sue Carter, Kerstin Uvnas-Möberg, Susan Love, Wenda Trevathan, Kaj Björkqvist, Frans de Waal, Ellen Laan, Sharon Hillier, Maria Bustillo, Jerrold Meinwald, T
homas Eisner, Benita and John Katzenellenbogen, Thomas Insel, Roger Gorski, Florence Haseltine, Martha McClintock, Geert de Vries, Dominique Toran-Allerand, Margie Profet, Londa Schiebinger, Barney Schlinger, Miriam Nelson, Ronenn Roubenoff, Pentii Siiteri, Nicolette Horbach, Jay Schulkin, Michael Toaff, Diane Witt, Luis Figuera, and Virginia Valian.
I am also deeply indebted to the following individuals, who shared their personal histories and in some cases allowed me to observe medical procedures of an admittedly intimate nature: Hope Phillips, Beth Derochea, Antonia Alba, Sandra Gandsman, Jane Carden, Cheryl Chase, Martha Coventry, and the members of the Intersex Society of North America.
My heartfelt thanks to the editors at Houghton Mifflin for mingling compassion, precision, and patience with the occasional act of lifesaving ruthlessness. I am grateful as well to my research assistant, Laura Beitman, for her energy and resourcefulness.
Finally, my profound love and gratitude to my husband, who kept me going through the perpetual squalls of doubt and gloom, and who answered each of my proposed excuses for quitting with a reminder of why I must not.
* * *
Index
* * *
* IVF means in vitro ("in glass") fertilization, as opposed to in vivo ("in body"), the old-fashioned way. GIFT, or gamete intrafallopian transfer, is a variant on IVF in which eggs and sperm are injected into a woman's fallopian tube, with the hope that they will find each other and create a zygote.
[back]
***
* This system of sex determination by the male gamete is a mammalian phenomenon. Among birds, the opposite method holds true: the female has two different sex chromosomes, an X and a W, and it is her egg, not her mate's sperm, that determines the sex of the chick.
[back]
***
* The names are pseudonyms.
[back]
***
* Very little is understood about large-scale gene organization—that is, why genes are distributed across the twenty-three chromosomes the way they are. Most of the placement appears to be a matter of chance and convenience, but some genes may be where they are because of how they are designed to perform during development, their accessibility to essential control elements, and the like.
Woman Page 48