63 Pusen, ‘To feed a country at war’, pp. 158–9.
64 Gatu, Toward Revolution, p. 217; Hongmin, ‘Traditional responses to modern war’, pp. 195–6.
65 Ibid., p. 196.
66 Ibid., pp. 197–8.
67 Xinran, China Witness, p. 245.
68 Hongmin, ‘Traditional responses to modern war’, p. 198.
69 Ibid., pp. 197, 199.
70 Slyke, ‘The Chinese Communist movement’, p. 222.
71 Gatu, Toward Revolution, pp. 218–19.
72 Ven, War and Nationalism, p. 283.
73 Eastman, Seeds of Destruction, p. 88.
74 Mitter, Modern China, p. 48.
75 Xinran, China Witness, p. 276.
76 Mitter, Modern China, p. 54.
77 Ibid., p. 48; Mitter, Bitter Revolution, p. 184.
78 Ven, War and Nationalism, p. 296; Gordon, ‘The China–Japan war’, p. 162.
79 Ven, War and Nationalism, p. 296.
80 Ibid., p. 5.
81 Mitter, Bitter Revolution, p. 183.
82 Milward, War, Economy and Society, p. 289.
83 Magaeva, ‘Physiological and psychosomatic prerequisites for survival’, p. 131.
84 Ibid., pp. 141–2.
85 Ibid., p. 141.
86 Macintyre, ‘Famine and the female mortality advantage’, p. 254; Cherepenina, ‘Assessing the scale of famine and death’, p. 39.
87 Myron Winick, ‘Hunger disease: studies by the Jewish physicians in the Warsaw ghetto, their historical importance and their relevance today’, 27 October 2005, http://www.columbia.edu/cu/epic/pdf/winick_lecture, pp. 2–3; Fliederbaum, ‘Metabolic changes’, pp. 69–124; Apfelbaum, ‘Pathophysiology of the circulatory system’, pp. 125–60.
88 Brown et al., ‘Increased risk of affective disorders in males’, pp. 601–6.
89 Lumley, ‘Reproductive outcomes’, pp. 129–35.
90 Barker, ‘Fetal origins’, pp. 171–4.
91 Stanner et al., ‘Does malnutrition in utero determine diabetes?’, pp. 1342–9; Joseph and Kramer, ‘Review of the evidence’, pp. 158–74.
92 Duigan and Gann, The Rebirth, p. 2.
93 Hobsbawm, Age of Extremes, p. 290.
94 Short et al., ‘“The front line of freedom”’, p. 15.
95 Martin, ‘Agriculture and food supply’, p. 203.
96 Milward, ‘Long-term change in world agriculture’, p. 6.
97 Ibid., p. 12.
98 Kershaw, Fateful Choices, p. 128.
PART III THE POLITICS OF FOOD
1 Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom, p. 417.
2 Mayhew, ‘The 1930s nutrition controversy’, p. 447.
3 Overy, Russia’s War, p. 327; Hastings, Das Reich, pp. 2–3.
4 Crew, ‘General introduction’, p. 8.
5 Harris, ‘Great Britain’, p. 241.
6 Drea, In the Service of the Emperor, pp. 66–7.
7 Baer, One Hundred Years, p. 201.
8 Reynolds, Rich Relations, p. 86.
9 Ibid., p. 62.
10 Richmond, The Japanese Forces in New Guinea, p. 42.
11 Cited in ibid., pp. 165–6.
12 Edgerton, Warriors of the Rising Sun, p. 235.
13 Imamura, ‘Extracts from the tenor of my life’, NLA, mfm PMB 569, III,p. 151.
13. Japan – Starving for the Emperor
1 Cook and Cook, Japan at War, pp. 278–80.
2 Kershaw, Fateful Choices, p. 331.
3 Morris, Traveller from Tokyo, p. 121.
4 Research Report No. 122, ‘Antagonism between officers and men in the Japanese armed forces’, AWM 55 12/94, p. 6.
5 Drea, In the Service of the Emperor, p. 72.
6 Harries and Harries, Soldiers of the Sun, p. 351.
7 Soviak, A Diary of Darkness, p. 285.
8 Imamura, ‘Extracts from the tenor of my life’, NLA, mfm PMB 569, III, p. 151.
9 Cwiertka, ‘Popularizing a military diet in wartime Japan and postwar Japan’, IIAS Newsletter, 38, http://www.iias.nl/iias/show/id=51553, p. 10.
10 Cwiertka, Modern Japanese Cuisine, p. 77.
11 Ibid., pp. 78–9; Cwiertka, ‘Popularizing a military diet in wartime Japan and postwar Japan’, IIAS Newsletter, 38, http://www.iias.nl/iias/show/id=51553, pp. 8–10.
12 Ibid., p. 11.
13 Cwiertka, Modern Japanese Cuisine, p. 81.
14 Ibid., p. 84.
15 Ibid.; Cwiertka, ‘Popularizing a military diet in wartime Japan and postwar Japan’, IIAS Newsletter, 38, http://www.iias.nl/iias/show/id=51553 p. 13.
16 Ibid., p. 16.
17 Ibid., p. 19.
18 Cwiertka, Modern Japanese Cuisine, pp. 117, 119.
19 Pauer, ‘Neighbourhood associations’, p. 222.
20 Tomita, Dear Miye, p. 56.
21 Pauer, ‘Neighbourhood associations’, p. 222; Cwiertka, Modern Japanese Cuisine, p. 130.
22 Tomita, Dear Miye, p. 97.
23 Ibid., p. 113.
24 Pauer, ‘Neighbourhood associations’, p. 237.
25 Morris, Traveller from Tokyo, p. 123.
26 Author in conversation with Katarzyna Cwiertka.
27 Morris, Traveller from Tokyo, pp. 121–2.
28 Johnston, Japanese Food Management, p. 150.
29 Ibid., p. 151.
30 Senoh, A Boy Called H, p. 170.
31 Havens, Valley of Darkness, p. 77; Pauer, ‘Neighbourhood associations’, p. 240.
32 Ibid., p. 231.
33 Havens, Valley of Darkness, p. 86; Martin, ‘Agriculture and food supply’, p. 197.
34 Cwiertka, Modern Japanese Cuisine, p. 82.
35 Martin, ‘Agriculture and food supply’, p. 193.
36 Milward, War, Economy and Society, p. 288.
37 Katarzyna Cwiertka, ‘Feeding the troops in the Pacific and the Korean War’, talk given to the East Asian Studies seminar, Cambridge, 10 November 2008.
38 Richmond, The Japanese Forces in New Guinea, p. 168.
39 Ibid.
40 Ibid., p. 17; Reynolds, Rich Relations, p. 63.
41 Harries and Harries, Soldiers of the Sun, p. 286.
42 Drea, In the Service of the Emperor, p. 65; Calvocoressi and Wint, Total War, pp. 270–73.
43 Richmond, The Japanese Forces in New Guinea, pp. 165–6.
44 Ibid., p. 166.
45 Calvocoressi and Wint, Total War, p. 727.
46 Richmond, The Japanese Forces in New Guinea, p. 166.
47 Tamayama and Nunneley, Tales by Japanese Soldiers, pp. 37–8.
48 Ibid., pp. 29–30.
49 Ibid., p. 60.
50 Ibid., p. 108.
51 Soviak, A Diary of Darkness, p. 14.
52 Onn, Malaya Upside Down, p. 47.
53 Cook and Cook, Japan at War, p. 100.
54 Tamayama and Nunneley, Tales by Japanese Soldiers, pp. 101–2.
55 Drea, In the Service of the Emperor, p. 35.
56 ‘Ration supply and ration scale of Japanese land forces in SWPA’, 6 Feb 1944, AWM 55 12/47 (69), p. 1.
57 Richmond, The Japanese Forces in New Guinea, p. 145.
58 Keegan, The Second World War, p. 104.
59 (1.1 million tons) between December 1941 and April 1943. Johnston, Japanese Food Management, pp. 140–41.
60 Ibid., p. 152.
61 Ibid., p. 192.
62 Pauer, ‘Neighbourhood associations’, pp. 226–7.
63 Senoh, A Boy Called H, p. 290.
64 Japanese Pamphlet no. 9, AWM 54 423/5/22 Air Dept. Wellington N.Z. Japanese Pamphlets, p. 7.
65 Johnston, Japanese Food Management, p. 162.
66 Morris-Suzuki, Showa, p. 161.
67 Cook and Cook, Japan at War, pp. 177–8.
68 Ibid., pp. 179–80.
69 Ibid., p. 180.
70 Morris-Suzuki, Showa, pp. 161–2.
71 Havens, Valley of Darkness, p. 94.
72 Pauer, ‘Neighbourhood associations’, p. 227.
73 Soviak, A Diary of Darkness, p. 115.
&nbs
p; 74 Ibid., p. 170.
75 Ibid., p. 143.
76 Japanese Pamphlet no. 9, AWM 54 423/5/22 Air Dept. Wellington N.Z. Japanese Pamphlets.
77 Soviak, A Diary of Darkness, p. 170.
78 ‘Ration supply and ration scale of Japanese land forces in SWPA’, 6 Feb 1944, AWM 55 12/47 (69), p. 2.
79 Japanese Pamphlet no. 27, 30 December 1943, Air Dept. Wellington N.Z., AWM 54 423/5/22.
80 ‘Ration supply and ration scale of Japanese land forces in SWPA’, 6 Feb 1944, AWM 55 12/47 (69), p. 5.
81 Richmond, The Japanese Forces in New Guinea, p. 167.
82 ‘Ration supply and ration scale of Japanese land forces in SWPA’, 6 Feb 1944, AWM 55 12/47 (69), p. 8.
83 Japanese Pamphlet no. 27, 30 December 1943, Air Dept. Wellington N.Z., AWM 54 423/5/22.
84 Imamura, ‘Extracts from the tenor of my life’, NLA, mfm PMB 569, III, pp. 153–4.
85 ‘Ration supply and ration scale of Japanese land forces in SWPA’, 6 Feb 1944, AWM 55 12/47 (69), p. 5.
86 Japanese Pamphlet no. 27, 30 December 1943, Air Dept. Wellington N.Z., AWM 54 423/5/22.
87 ‘Ration supply and ration scale of Japanese land forces in SWPA’, 6 Feb 1944, AWM 55 12/47 (69), p. 34.
88 Richmond, The Japanese Forces in New Guinea, pp. 151–2.
89 Harries and Harries, Soldiers of the Sun, p. 340.
90 Ibid., p. 341.
91 Imamura, ‘Extracts from the tenor of my life’, NLA, mfm PMB 569, III, pp. 141–2.
92 Harries and Harries, Soldiers of the Sun, p. 341.
93 Imamura, ‘Extracts from the tenor of my life’, NLA, mfm PMB 569, III, pp. 145–6.
94 Harries and Harries, Soldiers of the Sun, p. 342. The Japanese routinely underestimated the numbers of Japanese soldiers killed in combat. Harries and Harries suggest that the Japanese lost 25,000 men on Guadalcanal, 10,000 of whom succumbed to disease and starvation. Most probably 40,000 Japanese soldiers were sent to Guadalcanal and somewhere close to one half of those 25,000 who died starved to death, or about 12,500.
95 Imamura, ‘Extracts from the tenor of my life’, NLA, mfm PMB 569, III, p. 151.
96 Beaumont, ‘Australia’s war: Asia and the Pacific’, p. 38.
97 Ibid.
98 Richmond, The Japanese Forces in New Guinea, p. 204.
99 Ibid., p. 171.
100 Harries and Harries, Soldiers of the Sun, p. 343.
101 Dornan, The Silent Men, p. 146.
102 Harries and Harries, Soldiers of the Sun, p. 343.
103 Bullard, ‘“The great enemy”’, pp. 215–16.
104 Ibid., p. 212.
105 Drea, In the Service of the Emperor, p. 70.
106 Bullard, ‘“The great enemy”’, p. 215.
107 Richmond, The Japanese Forces in New Guinea, p. 150.
108 Ibid., p. 178.
109 Thune, ‘The making of history’, p. 241.
110 Tanaka cited by Richmond, The Japanese Forces in New Guinea, pp. 149, 179.
111 Richmond, The Japanese Forces in New Guinea, pp. 166–7.
112 Nelson, ‘Taim Bilong Pait’, pp. 253–4.
113 Ibid., p. 256; Denoon, The Cambridge History of the Pacific Islanders, p. 316.
114 Japanese Pamphlet no. 27, 30 December 1943, Air Dept. Wellington N.Z., AWM 54 423/5/22.
115 Research Report No. 122, ‘Antagonism between officers and men in the Japanese armed forces’, AWM 55 12/94, p. 4.
116 Ibid.
117 Richmond, The Japanese Forces in New Guinea, pp. 185–6.
118 Ibid., p. 181.
119 Ibid., p. 214.
120 Tanaka, Hidden Horrors, p. 115.
121 Ibid. p. 116.
122 Keegan, The Second World War, p. 303.
123 Laurence and Tiddy, From Bully Beef, p. 43.
124 Falgout, ‘From passive pawns’, pp. 287–8.
125 McQuarrie, Strategic Atolls, pp. 135, 139; McQuarrie, Conflict in Kiribati, pp. 89–91.
126 McQuarrie, Strategic Atolls, p. 131.
127 Cook and Cook, Japan at War, p. 114.
128 Ibid., p. 116.
129 Ibid., p. 117.
130 Ibid., p. 119.
131 Gibney, Senso, pp. 156–7.
132 Ooka, Fires on the Plain, p. 179.
133 Harries and Harries, Soldiers of the Sun, p. 346.
134 Thompson, The Lifeblood of War, pp. 80–81; Richmond, The Japanese Forces in New Guinea, p. 17.
135 Allen, Burma, pp. 158–67.
136 Harries and Harries, Soldiers of the Sun, p. 347; Thompson, The Lifeblood of War, p. 92.
137 Tamayama and Nunneley, Tales by Japanese Soldiers, p. 158.
138 Ibid., p. 170.
139 Ibid., p. 175.
140 Thompson, The Lifeblood of War, p. 93.
141 Moharir, History of the Army Service Corps, p. 46.
142 Tamayama and Nunneley, Tales by Japanese Soldiers, p. 176.
143 Thompson, The Lifeblood of War, p. 95.
144 Ibid., p. 87.
145 Tamayama and Nunneley, Tales by Japanese Soldiers, p. 177.
146 Allen, Burma, p. 292.
147 Tamayama and Nunneley, Tales by Japanese Soldiers, pp. 174–8.
148 Ibid., p. 202.
149 Ibid., p. 229.
150 Cook and Cook, Japan at War, p. 104.
151 Hastings, Nemesis, p. 358.
152 Moharir, History of the Army Service Corps, p. 49.
153 Fujiwara, Uejini shita eireitachi, pp. 135–8.
154 Tanaka, Hidden Horrors, pp. 133–4.
155 Soviak, Diary of Darkness, p. 28.
156 Ibid., p. 282.
157 Ibid., p. 156.
158 Ibid., p. 145.
159 Ibid., p. 156.
160 Ibid., p. 207.
161 Ibid., p. 213.
162 Cwiertka, Modern Japanese Cuisine, p. 132.
163 Ibid.
164 Senoh, A Boy Called H, p. 302.
165 Matsumoto Nakako, interviewed May 2006.
166 Soviak, A Diary of Darkness, p. 261.
167 Pauer, ‘Neighbourhood associations’, p. 230.
168 Soviak, A Diary of Darkness, p. 171.
169 Ibid., pp. 174, 180.
170 Martin, ‘Agriculture and food supply’, p. 197.
171 Soviak, A Diary of Darkness, p. 236.
172 Dower, Embracing Defeat, pp. 90, 95.
173 Frank, Downfall, p. 81.
174 Soviak, A Diary of Darkness, p. 215.
175 Havens, Valley of Darkness, p. 103.
176 Soviak, A Diary of Darkness, p. 256.
177 Senoh, A Boy Called H, p. 402.
178 Cook and Cook, Japan at War, p. 192.
179 Ibid., p. 190.
180 Ibid., p. 191.
181 Ibid.
182 Soviak, A Diary of Darkness, pp. 294, 320.
183 Ibid., p. 326.
184 Havens, Valley of Darkness, p. 129.
185 Soviak, A Diary of Darkness, p. 329.
186 Frank, Downfall, p. 77.
187 Ibid., pp. 149, 156–7.
188 Parillo, The Japanese Merchant Marine, p. 204.
189 Martin, ‘Japans Kriegswirtschaft’, p. 271.
190 Gibney, Senso, p. 181.
191 Ibid.
192 Frank, Downfall, p. 81.
193 Pauer, ‘Neighbourhood associations’, p. 227.
194 Johnston, Japanese Food Management, p. 150.
195 Parillo, The Japanese Merchant Marine, pp. 219–20; Frank, Downfall, pp. 80–81, 96.
196 Havens, Valley of Darkness, pp. 129–30.
197 Johnston, Japanese Food Management, p. 202; Dower, Embracing Defeat, p. 91.
198 Frank, Downfall, p. 354.
199 Dower, Embracing Defeat, p. 92; Honda, ‘Differential structure’, p. 281.
200 Frank, Downfall, p. 343.
201 Soviak, A Diary of Darkness, p. 215.
202 Ibid., p. 247.
203 Newman, Truman, p. 13.
204 Frank, Downfall, pp. 26–7.
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205 Newman, Truman, pp. 71–3.
206 Ibid., p. 43.
207 Frank, Downfall, p. 345.
208 Ibid., p. 351; Dower, Embracing Defeat, pp. 95–6.
209 Frank, Downfall, p. 352.
210 Newman, Truman, p. 37.
211 Ibid., p. 43.
212 Frank, Downfall, pp. 188–9.
213 Senoh, A Boy Called H, p. 395.
214 Newman, Truman, pp. 186–7.
215 Ibid., pp. 3, 186; Frank, Downfall, pp. 123, 163.
216 Frank, Downfall, p. 71.
217 Higa, The Girl with the White Flag, p. 71.
218 Frank, Downfall, p. 72.
219 Newman, Truman, pp. 25–6.
220 Ibid., p. 17.
221 Ibid., p. 19.
222 Ibid., p. 105; Frank, Downfall, pp. 271–2.
223 Frank, Downfall, p. 287.
224 Gibney, Senso, pp. 254–5.
14. The Soviet Union – Fighting on Empty
1 Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom, p. 413.
2 The figure of 30 million has to be calculated in a frustratingly roundabout way. There are no accurate figures for death tolls. Instead it is based on a projection forward from the 1939 population census figures to 1941 and a projection backwards from the 1959 census to 1946, to estimate pre- and post-war population figures. Then, allowing for what would have been a normal 2.5 per cent annual increase in population, the demographers calculate that 28–30 million people were missing in 1946. Linz, ‘World War II and Soviet economic growth’, p. 18; Wheatcroft and Davies, ‘Population’, pp. 77–80; Barber and Harrison, The Soviet Home Front, pp. ix, 40–42; Ellman and Maksudov, ‘Soviet deaths’, pp. 671–8.
3 Nine million of the estimated 28–30 million dead are accounted for by the military. The causes of death for the 19–21 million Soviet civilians were many. In the German-occupied areas of the Soviet Union at least 1 million Soviet Jews were murdered, other Soviets died in German prisons and concentration camps or as a result of mass shootings of civilians, yet more died while fighting the Germans as partisans or working as forced labour in German industry. Then there were those who starved to death as a result of the Hunger Plan. In the unoccupied areas of the Soviet Union the figure encompasses those who died in Soviet gulags and forced labour camps and those killed by enemy bombing (estimated at 500,000). Wheatcroft and Davies, ‘Population’, p. 79; Overy, Russia’s War, p. 89.
4 Wheatcroft and Davies, ‘Population’, p. 79.
5 Bacon, The Gulag at War, p. 139.
6 Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom, p. 413.
7 Moskoff, The Bread of Affliction, p. 37.
8 Miller, ‘Impact and aftermath of World War II’, p. 284.
The Taste of War: World War II and the Battle for Food Page 67