protectionism 21, 22, 27, 28, 58, 141, 143, 489
prisoners of war 7, 133, 163, 164, 245, 294, 296, 324, 415, 441, 444, 470, 514n, 566n
as agricultural workers 79–80, 84, 95, 133, 156, 160, 170, 231
as food 298, 300
death rates 193
food allocations for 79–80, 194, 245, 299, 373–4, 393
of Japanese 7, 297–8, 299, 314, 462
starvation of Soviet 5, 26, 191, 193–4, 199, 264, 324, 462
Rabaul 285, 286, 290, 291, 292, 293
ration packs
C 174, 440, 442, 443, 451
composite 404, 405, 414, 440
emergency 281, 410, 413, 441, 461
operational 410, 411, 413, 441, 443
10-in-1 441
rationing 7, 10, 11, 14, 73, 108, 109, 115, 118, 123, 144, 150, 156, 166, 178, 195, 210, 220, 221, 225, 269, 279, 328, 367, 374, 418–19, 496, 498, 501
as an instrument of welfare 10, 108, 395–9, 429
cuts 7, 106, 136, 139, 157, 164, 181, 183, 194, 203, 210, 21, 245, 289–90, 310, 312, 362, 369, 371, 380–81, 383
inadequate 11, 161, 166, 171, 193, 206, 312, 331, 370–71, 481
see also under individual countries
Red Sea 106, 126, 127, 403
Reich Food Corporation (Reichsnährstand) 28, 29, 30, 77, 156, 160, 169, 374
Rhodesias, the 1201, 121, 132–5, 138
Ribbentrop, Joachim von 183, 377
rice 4, 12, 14, 53, 61, 63, 70, 85, 115, 131, 149, 165, 173, 232, 239, 240, 254, 256, 266, 272, 294, 299, 300, 301, 305, 307–8, 365, 415, 451, 467, 497
as relief aid 148, 150, 152, 481
black market in 122, 131, 136, 143, 147, 237, 243, 252
Burmese 67, 124, 129, 239, 497
cultivation52, 53, 61, 79, 129, 132, 150, 229, 231, 235, 237–8, 243, 250–51, 285, 286
exports to Japan 52, 228, 230, 234–5, 239, 240–43, 244, 245, 278, 286, 287
industry/trade 148, 150, 230, 234, 235, 237, 243, 469
price of 52–3, 58, 143, 146–7, 150, 233–4, 237, 241, 243, 247, 252–3, 278–9
rationing 249, 287, 310
riots 52
shortages 145, 146, 147, 234, 240, 245, 246, 278, 281, 287, 290, 308, 420, 496–7
switch to eating 3, 454, 456, 457, 460
yield 234, 243, 252, 476
Romania 34, 42, 69, 202, 342
Rommel, Erwin
Roosevelt, Franklin D. 68, 72, 112, 114, 152, 245, 426, 432, 478, 481
and lend-lease 76, 108
and the four freedoms 433, 476, 482
food policy 77, 422
Theodore Roosevelt 82
Rosenberg, Alfred 36, 38, 187
Russia see Soviet Union
rye 21, 22, 28, 29, 195, 213, 351, 370, 379, 404, 437, 450, 540n
Sakharov, Andrei 219, 225, 327, 330, 334, 346
Samoa 453, 455–7, 459
Sauckel, Fritz 210, 214, 215, 370
Schacht, Hjalmar 29
school dinners/lunch programme 396–7, 427–9
Seabrook Farms 82–4, 445, 493
second front 110, 111, 340
Senoh, Kappa 280, 287
Shanghai 246, 253, 260, 288
shipbuilding industry 103, 105, 108, 116–17, 229, 242, 286, 349, 423
shipping
diversion from Indian Ocean 125, 136, 145
losses 24, 103, 104, 110, 112, 113, 115, 117, 243, 244, 273, 286, 287, 315
shortage 66, 68, 91, 98, 99, 100, 102, 103–11, 124–7, 29, 130, 138, 140, 145, 151, 152, 229 230, 239, 240, 295, 298, 361, 366, 389
Siam 4, 230, 235, 236, 239, 283, 285
Siberia 12, 92, 205, 288, 326, 334
Singapore 236, 237, 245, 246, 283
rationing in 240
Solomon Islands 290, 291, 240, 454
Somalia 31, 126, 130, 497
Somervell, General B. B. 111, 113, 116, 439, 449
South Africa 67, 107, 120, 128, 132, 133, 404, 413, 473
south-east Asia see specific countries
Soviet armed forces 130, 131
behaviour in defeated Germany 342–3
casualties 317, 319
collection of food for 223–4, 323, 342
corruption 321
defeat of German armed forces 112, 177, 270, 303, 331–2, 342, 369
disarray in early years 198, 318–19, 321–2
food rations 319–20, 324, 340–41, 342, 437
foraging for food 323–4
growing food 341
hunger in 318, 320, 321, 323, 341
lack of preparation 318
lend-lease aid for 77, 112, 114, 262, 336, 340, 341
length of service tail 271
motivation for fighting 462
recovery 336
see also eastern front
Soviet Union 68, 112, 249–50, 467, 476, 480, 483, 485
agriculture 38, 187, 188, 215, 219–27, 470–71, 489–90
agricultural crisis 9, 226, 269
attitude of citizens to government 10, 215, 462, 463, 499
and China 249, 261
and United States 177
barter economy 339
breakdown of economy 9, 325–8, 344, 464
casualties 11, 317, 344–5, 471, 555n
collective farm markets 226, 338–9
collectivization 37, 220–21, 223, 226, 262, 325
conscription 222
corruption/privilege 333–4, 335, 343
fear of punishment 223, 225, 332, 346, 464
fertilizer industry 92
food crisis 317–18, 319
food policy 11, 224, 263, 319, 328, 336–7, 345
food shortages 11, 12, 13, 214, 222, 224–5, 269–70, 327, 329, 331, 333, 335, 339, 343, 464, 490
German invasion 37, 39, 63, 66, 187, 190, 320, 326
government attitude to its citizens 10, 344–5
government collection of food 223, 262
industrial recovery 332, 335–6
industrial workers in 306, 329–30, 333, 335, 340, 422, 423, 431
lend-lease aid 339, 340, 341, 419
loss of agricultural land 73, 219, 222, 226, 319
malnutrition 343–4
people’s ability to survive 214, 216, 217, 225
post-war destruction 470–71
preparation for war 184, 220, 319
pre-war food economy 220–21, 226, 324, 325, 345
private plots 225
rationing in 77, 220, 221, 225, 327, 329–31, 334–5, 338, 339, 343, 471
reasons for fighting 270, 324, 330, 332, 345–6, 416, 464
starvation in 317–18
trade with Germany 34, 35, 69
victory gardens 334, 335, 337, 340–41
see also aerial bombardment; black market; blockade; calorie consumption
soya 54, 61, 69, 228, 232, 240, 246, 259, 277, 281, 286, 287, 290, 291, 305, 308, 310, 329, 393, 470
as fodder 3, 19, 67
increased production 85–7, 493
impact on human health 87
increasing occurrence in western diet 87, 493
Spain 23, 67, 96, 232
Speer, Albert 370, 371, 372
Stalin, Joseph 32, 110, 112, 184, 186, 195, 220, 265, 329, 333, 336, 340, 344, 346, 464, 471, 485, 489
Stalingrad 39, 321–3, 381
Stephens, Ian 1, 142, 149
sub-Saharan Africa 3, 489, 500
substitute foods 287, 304–5, 308, 310, 327, 330–31, 337–8, 379, 420
sugar 4, 18, 19, 20, 21, 29, 52, 53, 60, 67, 68, 69, 90, 109, 113, 115, 118, 122, 128, 174, 175, 195, 211, 217, 228–9, 239, 281, 286, 288, 330, 333, 334, 335, 339, 341, 351, 364, 377, 391, 392, 404, 422, 431, 451, 457, 470
consumption 20, 21, 495
rations 361, 362, 367, 407, 412, 419, 424, 439, 440, 442, 447, 451
shortages 13, 170, 202, 225, 246, 287, 321, 327, 328, 382, 386, 389
Switzerland 219
Szczebrzeszyn 43, 44, 206, 208, 209, 211, 212
/> Taiwan see Formosa
taste 14, 284, 292, 360, 428, 441, 454, 460
acquisition of new 3, 404, 418, 495, 496, 497
attempts to improve ration 401, 410
difference between American and Australian 446, 450
lack of 13, 85, 101, 392, 440
importance of fat for 13, 22, 157
pleasant 237, 343, 374, 396, 475
sugary 174
standardization of 277, 428, 438, 495
unpleasant 100, 197, 245, 297, 305, 307, 327, 392, 396
tea 18, 19, 20, 31, 52, 67, 69, 115, 128, 131, 133, 177, 281, 283, 302, 310, 322, 325, 333, 334, 339, 351, 361, 364, 365, 369, 374, 377, 388, 400, 403, 404, 407, 410, 412, 414, 436, 447, 470, 496
Thailand see Siam
Thomas, General Georg 36, 38
Tonga 453, 459
total war 8, 9, 50, 54, 70, 72, 249, 268, 270, 346, 352, 377
Townsville (Australia) 14, 448
Treaty of Non-Aggression 1939 34, 35, 42, 69
Tripartite Pact 63
Truman, President Harry 316, 478, 479, 480
Turkey 26, 130
Tydings Amendment 79
U-boats 8, 26, 66, 68, 69, 101, 102, 104, 105, 107, 117, 126, 366
Allied losses caused by 103, 110
construction 104, 110
Ukraine 5, 40, 190, 191, 212, 218, 222, 226, 259, 382, 471
collectivization in 221
as source of food for Germany 37, 178, 180, 182, 183, 184, 187, 188, 196, 210, 214, 216, 217, 263
German occupation policy 159, 187, 191, 223
unconditional surrender 311, 312, 314
underdeveloped countries 71, 141, 233, 262, 489
unemployment 29, 54, 56, 78, 98, 172, 349, 352, 353, 394, 416, 417, 477
United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) 151, 477, 478, 479, 481, 484, 485
United States 68, 69, 74, 92, 110, 126, 248, 262, 279, 326
abundance of food in 75–6, 87, 88, 118, 272, 416, 460
agriculture in 8, 11, 19, 22, 68, 72, 75–88, 95, 100, 112, 158, 220, 265, 266, 420, 427, 476, 479, 411, 493
agricultural policy 76, 77, 480–84, 489
and Africa 133, 141
and Australia 121, 443, 444, 446–50, 488–9, 492–3, 496
and Britain 24, 97, 101, 113–14, 139, 141, 167, 262, 396, 488
and China 248
and Germany 2, 16, 21, 24, 30, 34, 104, 164
and Japan 2, 8, 49, 50, 62, 63–4, 141, 253, 273, 275, 280, 300, 314–16, 497
and Latin America 68
and Pacific Islands 121, 452–60
and Soviet Union 334
advance in food technologies 10, 92, 388, 492–3
as an economic power 64, 75, 88, 117, 261, 415, 419, 461, 474–5
autarky 31, 262
blacks in 11, 424–6
casualties 317
conscription 417
dissatisfaction with rationing 431–3, 478, 479
fertilizer industry 81, 92, 232, 489
food policy 10, 77, 118, 419–20, 428
growth in prosperity 417, 429
internment of Japanese-Americans 80, 84
laissez-faire policy 11, 419–20, 428
idea of consumption as a key to prosperity 270, 433
importance of meat 112, 431–2
industrial workers in 417, 422–4, 429
influence of food industry in 421–2, 424
malnutrition in 417, 427
meat diversion scheme 98, 110, 111, 114, 116, 125, 449
motivation for fighting 416, 429–31, 433–4, 463
pre-war food economy 417, 426–7
problem/fear of surpluses 27, 75, 76, 427, 477
rationing in 11, 109, 114, 116, 118, 418–22, 424, 430–31, 432, 439, 478
school lunch programme 427–8
unemployment in 416, 417
victory gardens 418
wartime improvement in diet 417–18
see also black market; calorie consumption
United States armed forces 98, 407
casualties 315
bases in Pacific Islands 453
best fed 118, 415, 434–5, 436, 437, 452, 460
food rations 140, 281, 282, 415, 416, 434–7, 439–42, 446, 448, 449, 451, 462
length of service tail 271
motivation for fighting 460–61
new attitude to nutrition 10, 435, 436–8, 442–3
troop welfare policy 435–6, 438–9
size 415
United States Department of Agriculture 76, 78, 421, 431, 476, 477, 478, 479, 484
US War Food Administration 77n, 88, 422, 477
urbanization 3, 21, 235
vegetable oils 3, 4, 87, 156, 217, 256, 493
vegetables 69, 77, 133, 167, 169, 173, 175, 198, 209, 239, 276, 280, 286, 288, 321, 340, 359, 413, 419, 444, 486, 490, 493
availability/shortages 106, 203, 226, 232, 245, 262, 280, 289, 290, 296, 334, 338, 339, 366, 367, 378, 379, 380–81, 382, 394, 448, 449, 461, 479, 480
consumption 20, 61, 79, 149, 174, 176, 256, 269, 276, 281, 307, 342, 344, 347, 351, 355, 373, 390–91, 394–5, 404, 405, 407, 408, 410, 412, 413, 418, 423, 428, 436–8, 441, 474, 495, 497
difference in American and Australian taste in 450–51
growing 9, 79, 80, 83–4, 85, 93, 137–8, 161, 163, 284, 290, 306, 335, 341, 390–91, 405, 433, 444–6
matter 298, 302
preparation 402, 409
preserving 407–8
Versailles, Treaty of 16, 25, 26
vitamins 195, 275, 369, 240, 402, 409, 422
attempts to address deficiency 225, 245, 277, 337, 389, 394, 396, 408–9, 413, 418, 436
deficiency 13, 172, 176, 240, 245, 275, 290, 292, 311, 327, 339, 344, 350, 351–2, 363, 385, 394, 404, 405, 407, 411, 412, 413, 442, 460, 492, 500
discovery of 268–9
education about importance of 391–2, 405, 421
fortified food 389, 411, 421, 494
in wheat 20, 388
rich foods 14, 20, 156, 280, 323
Volksgemeinschaft 31, 353, 354, 355, 376
Wannsee Conference 205
Warsaw ghetto 5, 206–7, 209, 212, 263, 264
war industries 8, 9, 66, 76, 88, 109, 122, 155, 158, 231, 286, 306, 310, 325, 328, 363, 368, 417, 425–6
weight 499
gain 246, 397, 411, 412–13, 436
loss 5, 9, 25, 182, 203, 245, 304, 311, 335, 344, 368, 407, 442, 468, 472
West Africa 3, 67, 68, 39–41
wheat 21, 24, 28, 53, 70, 76, 87, 109, 125, 128, 163, 182, 222, 225, 256, 276, 282, 297, 412, 491
as fodder 479, 480–81
as relief aid 129, 130 151, 152, 167, 478, 479–81, 485
as substitute for rice 124, 145, 278, 287, 467, 496–7
cultivation 19–20, 22, 89–96, 98, 132, 163, 172–3, 220–21, 251, 469
exports to Germany 171, 173, 217
exports to Japan 246
glut 444
milling process 20, 354, 379, 388–9
nutritional value 232, 387, 408, 411
prices 4, 122, 143, 484
shortages 129, 170, 173, 174, 250, 252, 471, 476
stocks 104, 105, 129, 477
Wickard, Claude 76, 114
Wiepking-Jürgensmann, Heinrich 41, 47, 48
Women’s Land Army 79, 94, 156
women in industrial workforce 8, 66, 117, 181, 231, 306, 326, 329–30, 367, 369, 371, 424, 425
Woolton, Lord 108, 109, 111, 115, 139, 361, 362, 366, 384, 392, 395, 396, 398, 428
1. Herbert Backe, German Minister for Food and Agriculture and architect of the Hunger Plan. A typical Schreibtischtäter (desk perpetrator).
2. A dispossessed Polish family, some of the thousands who were evicted from their farms to make way for the settlement of ethnic Germans.
3. One of Norman Rockwell’s extremely popular illustrations of Roosevelt’s four freedoms, which reinforced the notion that Americans were fight
ing to defend their way of life.
4. The British Ministry of Agriculture promoted potatoes as a perfect energy food by using the cheerful cartoon character Potato Pete.
5. The practice of bartering for food in the countryside was endearingly known in German as ‘hamstering’. Severe food shortages in the urban areas meant that hamstering eventually became a vital source of food.
6. For occupying troops in France the Wehrmacht’s policy of living off the land translated into living off the fat of the land. These German soldiers are buying cakes from a street stall in Paris in 1940.
7. The banner on the side of the train reads, ‘First foodstuffs – Ukraine/Berlin’. While food was confiscated from the east, the German blockade of Ukrainian cities and the extermination of Polish Jews was intensified in order to remove ‘useless eaters’ from the food chain.
8. A Jewish man suffering mistreatment from a civilian in the Ukraine, June 1941.
9. All over the Soviet Union hundreds of thousands of peasants and workers were reduced to living in primitive circumstances. This woman is cooking on a makeshift oven in a suburb of Stalingrad.
10. Two Malayan natives at an Australian treatment centre on the island of Balikpapan, Borneo, in July 1945. These Malayans, who had been brought to Borneo as forced labourers by the Japanese, are clearly suffering from severe malnutrition. Millions of south-east Asians died of hunger as a result of Japanese policies.
11. Japanese soldiers cooking their rations on Muchu Island, New Guinea, in September 1945. The Japanese army did not cook for its soldiers in field kitchens; instead each man lit a small fire and prepared his own meal.
12. After having been in action for a few days in the Sanananda area of Papua, during which they survived on a diet of bully beef and biscuits, these US troops are enjoying the opportunity to cook themselves a jungle stew using fresh food.
13. A badly emaciated Japanese soldier on Sandaken, North Borneo, awaiting transportation to a prisoner of war camp in October 1945. The American blockade of Japanese shipping meant that Japanese soldiers throughout the Pacific were left without food supplies, with devastating effect.
14. Japanese civilians approach some GIs who are lunching on K rations in Tokyo in August 1945. By the end of the war the Japanese urban population was teetering on the verge of starvation, and as this picture shows the townspeople grew vegetables amid the ruins in order to survive.
15. Australian naval personnel delighted by the soup, steak and onions, fresh peas, potatoes, bread and butter, strawberry ice cream and coffee piled up on their American mess trays. These Australians were discovering for themselves that the US military was the best fed in the world.
The Taste of War: World War II and the Battle for Food Page 79