The implications of the phenomenon of time dilation relative to interstellar travel, and UFOs, are enormous. The following figures represent the lengths of time a vehicle would take to reach certain destinations as perceived on Earth relative to the lengths of time it would take as perceived on the spaceship, assuming a constant acceleration of one Earth gravity (1g.) up to a high relativistic speed during the first half of the flight, and a constant deceleration of 1g. during the second half.
As can be seen, even travel to the known limits of the universe can be accomplished within a normal human lifespan. Astronauts could travel to nearby stars, nearby galaxies, or even go “galaxy chasing,” all within fifty years spaceship time, although billions of years could have transpired on Earth. The main factor would be speed: so long as a high relativistic speed is attained and maintained, all this would be possible, but if the spaceship were to decelerate for any reason, such as to enable visitation to interesting places, the time dilation effect would dramatically lose its potency.
The main argument which can be used against the time dilation effect for interstellar travel, particularly in regard to possible extraterrestrial UFOs, is that the astronauts would have to leave behind all their families and friends, never to see them again. It is also highly questionable whether a society, however technologically advanced, would be willing to finance such a venture when it would have absolutely no possibility of ever knowing the results.
The same argument can be used against the SETI signal approach, in that by the time another society received the message, the sending society may have radically altered its “state of mind” or even ceased to exist.
To solve the “timegap” problem in interstellar travel, Johns Hopkins astrophysicist Richard C. Henry has proposed that the astronauts “take their friends with them.” In other words, one could envision increasing colonization in the vicinity of a home planet, including the hollowing out of giant asteroids, and the eventual abandonment of the home star system and displacement across interstellar space. That is, the entire society, or a major segment of it, would become an interstellar one and could speed up and slow down at will, visiting whatever planetary systems, or even galaxies, it wished, without any subgroup experiencing time differences relative to the society as a whole.
Other techniques which could improve even further the practicality of interstellar travel are biomagnetic levitation, suspended animation, and prolongevity. Biomagnetic levitation would permit the human body to withstand an acceleration much higher than 1g. to attain relativistic speeds. The process would levitate a biological body in a strong inhomogeneous magnetic field to compensate for acceleration inertial forces on the body and could reduce flight duration times from years to months (spaceship time).
Suspended animation would involve slowing down all bodily life support functions to a minimum, similar to hibernation in some mammals. Suspended animation (which would reduce unnecessary aging even during relativistic interstellar trips) combined with biomagnetic levitation and time dilation effects would vastly increase practical travel distance potentials in interstellar travel. As for prolongevity, UFOs, if interstellar in origin, could be controlled by beings with biologically longer lifespans, or such lifespans could have been artificially lengthened, or the aging process itself could have been eliminated. Research in these areas is actively being conducted in the United States, and major breakthroughs are expected within decades. Elimination of the aging process, now believed to be within man’s grasp by many biological scientists, would invalidate all “distance” arguments against the practicality of interstellar travel, or the interstellar origin of UFOs.
Some have proposed that, in the course of time, extraterrestrials could also have learned to replace more and more of their body parts with artificial parts, as is happening with humans, until beings with more efficient and longlasting “bodies” have resulted. It has even been suggested that biological-based intelligence is simply a stepping stone to a higher order of existence, first mechanical, and then possibly “psychic,” in which no central processing system is required at all. Such possibilities can only be speculated upon, but it should be emphasized that extraterrestrial intelligences, if they exist, would have enormous lead times over the human species. The statistcal probability of such intelligences being at (or even near) man’s current stage of development is extremely low.
All of these possibilities are also assuming that the speed of light is not attainable or surpassable, as predicted by Einsteinian physics. Some writers have advocated that there may be means of bypassing this Einsteinian limitation (not necessarily invalidating it), so as to facilitate interstellar travel, and that such could only be accomplished by a society far in advance of our own. Carl Sagan, for example, once proposed that such supercivilizations may have discovered “new laws of physics” to reduce time intervals in radio communication; although, curiously, he did not propose such new laws to reduce the times of interstellar travel.
In the 1970s, increasing interest centered on hypothetical particles named tachyons, which would exist in a state faster than the speed of light, although their existence has not been conclusively established. The fact is that we still understand relatively little of the processes occurring in the universe, and certain astrophysical phenomena have demonstrated this quite clearly.
A colorful analogy has been proposed by University of Texas theoretical astrophysicist John Archibald Wheeler (formerly at Princeton University), who compared our understanding of the universe to what our understanding of an auto junkyard would be if all our knowledge of it were gained by viewing it through a small instrument lowered by an overhead crane; one would observe part of a dented hubcap here, a broken mirror there, but the engine would remain usually hidden. It would thus be a very long time indeed before we really understood the purpose of all the auto components and how they are integrated and work together.
In the 1980s and 1990s, new theoretical thinking advanced the concept of “wormholes.” Such proposed cosmic “tunnels” would make possible spacetime shortcuts from one part of a galaxy to another, or even between different galaxies in different parts of the universe. The concept is that a wormhole would provide almost instant access by a spaceship to any desired location, and possibly any desired time, not by crossing space in the traditional method of classical physics, but by penetrating the fabric of spacetime in a way that is hard for the human mind—accustomed as it is to three-dimensional space—to understand.
The mathematics underlying the concept of wormholes is sound but extremely complex. Although wormholes were predicted early in the century by Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity, it was only in the 1980’s that the first serious theoretical postulations were made. These were initiated by astrophysicist Kip S. Thorne, at the California Institute of Technology, and he and other physicists and mathematicians are continuing with such theoretical studies. (Curiously, the idea for the initial research came from Carl Sagan, who asked Thorne to investigate the possibility of such a transportation gateway so that he could include it in his novel Contact, which was published in 1985 and produced as a motion picture in 1997. In the story, Sagan’s heroine is not only transported through a wormhole, but through a myriad of such tunnels—like a sort of subway system of the cosmos.
Needless to say, the construction of a wormhole, or even the locating and using of a “natural” wormhole within practical distance from the Earth, is currently far beyond the technical capability of humans. Thorne developed a set of nine requirements for the construction of such a wormhole, which would require the use of “exotic matter.” However, the needed “exotic matter” would probably have to be harvested somehow from a black hole—and it may take a wormhole to reach a black hole within a reasonable time in the first place!
Nevertheless, it is conceivable that, at some time within the coming centuries, humans may attain the capability to produce and utilize such interstellar gateways for practical interstellar travel. Certainly, if su
ch were to occur, all the problems associated with traditional spaceflight, such as the distances between the stars and the time it takes to traverse such distances, would become obsolete and archaic.
It is possible that extraterrestrial civilizations, way in advance of humans technologically, have mastered the physics and engineering that such kind of travel would require. Under such conditions, easy travel from other parts of the galaxy to Earth could be quite routine and commonplace. If UFOs do represent extraterrestrial craft or devices that traverse wormholes to reach Earth, this would help resolve the problem of the inexplicably high frequency of UFO sighting reports.
Whether or not advanced intelligences have more fully understood the physics still beyond our grasp, and whether they have eventually taken advantage of the enormous energy resources available in the galaxy, are questions of profound interest. Physicist Freeman J. Dyson, of the Institute for Advanced Study, has written on this topic. He predicts that supercivilizations would have taken apart planets and harnessed the complete energy output of stars within 100,000 years of becoming technological, and that such operations would unavoidably create waste heat in the form of infrared radiation. Star collisions would also have been engineered throughout the galaxy, and stars would appear grouped and organized to a point where a “tame” galaxy would provide various forms of telltale clues. Dyson reluctantly concludes that the proposition of a supercivilization at work in our galaxy is not supported by observational evidence and, further, that if the galaxy contained a large number of civilizations, at least one would have “tamed” the galaxy by now.
An even more negative conclusion has been reached by Michael H. Hart; he states that, because no extraterrestrials have actually come to Earth for colonization, there is “…strong evidence that we are the first civilization in our galaxy….” A similar view has been expressed by Eric M. Jones: “The results suggest that no technological/ space faring/colonizing civilization has arisen in the galaxy.”
The reasons for all these negative conclusions is that a technological civilization would have rapidly colonized or at least visited the entire galaxy, but there is no evidence of such visitation to Earth. UFO reports are, of course, not given serious consideration, leading some UFO proponents to regard this approach as circular: UFOs cannot represent extraterrestrial visitation because if extraterrestrials existed they would visit us!
A calculation by T. B. H. Kuiper and M. Morris determined that just one technological civilization would populate the entire galaxy in a mere five million years. As conditions for life on Earth have been suitable for at least a billion years, the lack of such visitation can be interpreted as a lack of any extraterrestrial civilization in the galaxy. Kuiper and Morris, however, propose other explanations, such as purposeful noncontact, as does David W. Schwartzman, who even supports the “UFO hypothesis.”
In considering the extraterrestrial hypothesis for UFOs, then, it should be recognized that:
(1) there are many likely locations for the emergence of life in our galaxy, as well as in other galaxies;
(2) the emergence of life does not necessarily imply the eventual evolution of intelligent species;
(3) if such intelligences have evolved in the galaxy, or in other galaxies, they have already existed as such for far longer periods than the existence of Homo sapiens;
(4) one can only speculate over the biological, social, or technical development of such hypothetical intelligences;
(5) average distances between stars are enormous, but factors such as moving entire societies, time dilation, suspended animation, biomagnetic levitation, and prolongevity, would reduce or even eliminate the distance problem;
(6) our understanding of processes in the universe is still relatively poor, and it is premature to decide at this time what is “possible” or what is “impossible”;
(7) any statement categorically rejecting the hypothesis that UFOs may represent some form of interstellar visitation is simplistic and is not based on a critical evaluation and synthesis of all relevant factors;
(8) any acceptance of UFOs as representing extraterrestrial visitation, based on the available evidence, can only be construed as a belief unsupported by established facts.
The emotional commitment on the part of those speculating on the ETH, positively or negatively, is not likely to diminish as long as UFOs continue to be reported, and there is no indication that reports are decreasing with the advent of a better-informed public and a more sophisticated Earth-based technology.
The debate over the extraterrestrial hypothesis for UFOs will probably continue for many years to come.
—J. RICHARD GREENWELL
extraterrestrial life, history of The idea of extraterrestrial life, which dates back at least to the ancient Greeks, has become one of the most persistent themes of Western civilization. Nevertheless, historians of science prior to the 1980s largely ignored it, because it was not believed to constitute science or to have any intellectually respectable history.
With a more realistic concept of the nature of science, however, historians have now analyzed the idea in considerable detail, beginning with Steven Dick’s Plurality of Worlds: The Origins of the Extraterrestrial Life from Democritus to Kant (1982). This work showed that far from being an aberration, the idea of life on other worlds was strongly connected to major scientific traditions, including the ancient atomist, Copernican, Cartesian, and Newtonian world views. The Aristotelian world view strongly opposed it.
Professor Michael J. Crowe, in his volume entitled The Extraterrestrial Life Debate, 1750-1900 (1986), showed how pervasive the idea was in religious and intellectual discussion in the 19th century. Harvard Professor Karl Guthke emphasized the literary aspects of the discussion in The Last Frontier: Imagining other Worlds from the Copernican Revolution to Modern Science Fiction (1990).
Dick’s The Biological Universe: The Twentieth Century Extraterrestrial Life Debate and the Limits of Science (1996), and its abridgment and update, Life on other Worlds (1998), covered the entire scope of the debate—from the scientific aspects of the search for life to the popular culture elements of UFOs and alien science fiction and the implications of contact with extraterrestrial intelligence.
The history of the debate offers many lessons about the nature of evidence and inference, the limits of scientific inquiry, and the differing styles among scientists in terms of what problems they take up and how they pursue them. Moreover, Dick argues that the idea of a universe filled with life, the “Biological Universe” as he terms it, is the major world view of the 20th century. As such, it has implications for all of society, and has the potential to change our perspective on theology, philosophy and all areas of human endeavor.
The status of extraterrestrial life as a world view comparable to the Copernican and Darwinian world views allows one to discuss possible implications of contact. All world views go through stages, and a rich literature in the history of science has analyzed the reception of past scientific world views over the short and long term and among various segments of society. Although there are obvious differences among world views, and although predictions cannot be made and outcomes are scenario-dependent, the cautious use of these analogues may serve as a foundation for discussing the implications of contact with extraterrestrial intelligence.
The biological universe, however, has not yet been proven—either for microbial or intelligent life. Claims of proof in the past, ranging from the canals of Mars to Martian meteorites and UFOs of extraterrestrial origin, have stirred great passion precisely because so much is at stake—an entire world view with profound implications for human destiny. Possible implications have become part of popular culture in the form of science fiction literature and film, where the alien theme has been one of the most dominant.
—ETEP STAFF
References
Crowe, M. The Extraterrestrial Life Debate, 1750-1900 (Cambridge University Press, 1986),
Dick, S. J. Plurality of Worlds: The
Origins of the Extraterrestrial Life from Democritus to Kant (Cambridge University Press, 1982).
________. The Biological Universe: The Twentieth Century Extraterrestrial Life Debate and the Limits of Science (Cambridge University Press, 1996),
________. Life on other Worlds (Cambridge, 1998).
Guthke, K. S. The Last Frontier: Imagining other Worlds from the Copernican Revolution to Modern Science Fiction (Cornell University Press, 1990).
Extraterrestrial Visitations from Prehistoric Times to the Present (Editions J’ai Lu, 1970). Jacques Bergier makes a series of extraordinary claims: extraterrestrials intentionally exploded a star so its radiation would kill the dinosaurs on Earth and enable humans to evolve; beings of light bestowed secret interplanetary knowledge on the Rosicrucians and Freemasons; at least two million people disappear worldwide each year and many reappear with false memories designed to puzzle the rest of us; Bigfoot, elves, fairies and other creatures are manufactured by extraterrestrial intelligence and deposited among us in an experiment to test our reactions; and all of human evolution is a continuing experiment conducted by higher intelligences who have us in cosmic quarantine.
—RANDALL FITZGERALD
Extraterrestrials…Where are They? (Pergamon Press, 1982) edited by Ben Zuckerman and Michael Hart. Twenty-two essays argue that humans may be the most advanced species in the galaxy. It is a waste of time and money to search for radio signals, goes their argument, because even if other advanced technological civilizations existed, they would be of such short duration that they would have quickly given up on searching for or sending signals of their own.
—RANDALL FITZGERALD
Eyes of the Sphinx, The (Berkley Books, 1996). Erich von Däniken says the ancient Sumerians and Egyptians preserve evidence in their art of hybrid creatures which were genetically designed by alien visitors. These creatures included humans who were mixed with animals in ghoulish combinations, which explains why the Olmec and Mayan cultures featured human-animal hybrids in art representations on their temple walls.
The Mammoth Encyclopedia of Extraterrestrial Encounters Page 34