“It is a very handsome piece of rising ground,” proclaimed Winthrop Sargent, St. Clair’s Adjutant General for the campaign. He admired the small hills that rose above the river banks and so chose them as the location for the army’s cannons. Obviously, in pre-flight era the army that controlled the higher ground was usually the victor. Armies can not only protect higher ground easier with muskets, swords, and bayonets, but the elevation can be used to fire more accurate artillery volleys. Major Denny agreed on the position and so the cannons were placed on the hills, which as Sargent latter recounted were, “so defensible against regular troops;” but the Americans were not facing regular troops and after the battle finally commenced, they learned that the cannons were aimed too high to do any damage. Once more the Americans were their own worst enemies and were hurt by poor planning and a lack of intelligence. The poor leadership on the American side was juxtaposed with exceptional leadership skills by the Northwest Indian Confederation.
Indian Organization and the Defeat of St. Clair
The debacle of the American expedition into the old Northwest is well documented in American primary sources, but the organization and war council of the Northwest Indian Confederation was recorded much less so, primarily since most of the Northwest Indians lacked knowledge of writing. The historiographical problems that the situation presents is obvious – reconstructions of Indian chronology and events is often based on conjecture and even when oral accounts are available, the line between myth and history is often blurred. Although most of the details of the major events surrounding the Defeat of St. Clair are known, even the absence of some supposedly minor details can skew the entire narrative. The dearth of primary sources on the Indian side relating to the defeat of St. Clair has even led modern historians to question who their leader was.
Most historians believe that Little Turtle was the Indian commander who defeated St. Clair for a couple of compelling reasons. As chief of the Miami Indians, Little Turtle was already acquainted with a military type chain of command since the Miami tribe operated under a hierarchal structure. Little Turtle also had previous military success against the Americans during General Harmar’s failed expedition, which would have given him both tangible and intangible advantages over other Indian leaders. Little Turtle gained crucial knowledge of American tactics in his battles against Harmar. The Indian leader learned that the American regular soldiers were usually well armed and supplied and often good warriors, but their ability on the battle field was usually contingent on the qualities of their commanders. Little Turtle also learned that some of the Americans’ strengths were their use of artillery and musket charges by regular troops – both of those could inflict severe casualties on an Indian force. Furthermore, he learned that, as noted above, poor commanders could be the greatest detriment to the U.S. army and the frontiersmen they often used to augment their regulars were often unpredictable and unreliable. The victories that Little Turtle gained over Harmar also gave him respect among his own tribe and the other Indians of the Northwest Indian Confederation as his “medicine” grew stronger with each victory. When examined completely, it becomes clearer that Little Turtle was probably the war chief who defeated St. Clair as the man had to have both in-depth knowledge of American tactics and strategies, while also engendering a great amount of respect from his warriors.
The Shawnee chief Blue Jacket is also considered to be a potential war band leader due to his high profile in the Glaize community. Blue Jacket, like Little Turtle, was respected by all the tribes of the Northwest Indian Confederation so it is just as logical to assume that he may have been given the mantle of leadership. The Shawnee were also the most warlike and anti-American of all the tribes in the Northwest Indian Confederation, so their chief leading during the war makes sense, but the evidence, although anecdotal, appears to be more in Little Turtle’s favor.
Although Little Turtle and Blue Jacket are the two most logical choices for Indian leadership during the Defeat of St. Clair, other candidates have been proposed by various historians. One of the older theories held that a British commander actually led the Indians to victory against St. Clair. The British theory posits that only a commander well familiar with Western military tactics could have defeated St. Clair. At face value the theory is logical; the British continued to work against American interests in the region with the Indians as their proxy, but has little supporting evidence. At the time of the battle in 1791, as noted above, Little Turtle was also quite familiar with Western military tactics and prevailed successfully more than once against General Harmar. The idea that a British commander led the Northwest Indian Confederation against St. Clair is probably rooted more in stereotypes that held the Indians were incapable of fighting in an orderly fashion. With that said, there is anecdotal evidence that suggests British agents were at the Defeat of St. Clair, possibly as suppliers of guns and powder and also as technical advisors. Other potential candidates for the unnamed Indian commander were a man of mixed heritage named Joseph Brant and an anonymous Algonquin chief. Upon examination of the potential candidates, Little Turtle’s name rises above them all. Little Turtle had the experience and knowledge to lead a large contingent of warriors and more importantly, he had the charisma to make these men follow him and potentially give their lives. Before Little Turtle would lead his men to victory against St. Clair, he had to convince the other members of the Confederation that war was a good idea.
Little Turtle knew that convincing the chiefs of the aligned tribes would not be easy. Yes, they all hated American encroachment on their lands, but the Americans were as numerous as the sands on the beach, so defeating them was a daunting task and one that was not taken lightly by the tribal leaders. As all the chiefs sat gathered around a fire on the banks of the Maumee River in the Glaize community, Little Turtle took a puff of the pipe and then stood. “My brothers, we would all be happier at home with our families, but the Americans must be stopped.” He passed the pipe to Blue Jacket who was sitting next to him. “The Americans only know war, so we will give it to them. The British have promised us guns and may enter the war on our side.” Little Turtle probably knew that the British would be reluctant to join just to help them, but he knew that there were still many other issues that were unresolved after the Revolution. American merchant ships were being impressed by the British navy and many Americans wished to join the French in their efforts against the British. Perhaps the greatest challenge that Little Turtle had to overcome was the concept of Indian individualism.
The Indian tribes of North America always maintained a spirit of individualism that made the even brief existence of the Northwest Indian Confederation a miracle. Indian individualism was best summarized by Chingouabe, chief of the Ojibwa, in a correspondence to governor Frontenanc of the New France (Quebec) colony in 1695. Chingouabe said:
Father! It is not the same with us, as with you. When you command, all the French obey you and got to war. But I shall not be heeded and obeyed by my nation in like manner.
The situation that Little Turtle faced was even more precarious as he was not trying to organize a small war band to attack a village, but was instead attempting to form an army culled from different tribes to fight a modern Western army. The effort required the many allied tribes to put aside their differences – which were often immense and involved several years of bloodshed – and follow the leadership of one man. At some point all of the chiefs in the Glaize agreed and handed command of around 1,000 warriors to Little Turtle. Once given command Little Turtle divided the warriors into squad or platoons of fifty and 100 men. The army of the Northwest Indian Confederation then marched south to meet their enemy.
The March to the Wabash River
As Little Turtle and his army marched south, he, like his enemy, sent a squad of scouts ahead to research the enemy. “One American soldier and four handfuls of Chickasaw,” said a young, lean Miami scout to Little Turtle. The Miami chief knew that they had the element of surprise; the Chickasaws were o
bviously scouting for them and had so far come up empty handed. This was no doubt an important part of Little Turtle’s plan because if he and his army could remain undetected then they could seize the initiative. “They found our false trail Little Turtle,” said the young scout. Little Turtle smiled, although he was not sure what impact the false trail would have. The Chickasaw and the Americans knew he and his force were around somewhere so he thought it might be a good idea to throw them off a little by letting them find signs that only a few Indians had been through the area. Little Turtle would let them guess and in the meantime he and his warriors became ghosts in the forest.
Little Turtle knew this part of the Northwest like it was the back of his hand – it was Miami territory. He could move across the land quickly and undetected with an army as large as 1,000 men because he had done this before against the Americans during the Revolution, other Indians, and then the Americans again during Harmar’s expedition. Little Turtle knew that they could now stealthily sneak down near the headwaters of the Wabash River and engage the Americans on their terms. The Wabash River would be a good place to engage the Americans because if they were defeated then they had a clear retreat route back to the Glaize, but if they were victorious then they had control, at least temporarily, of all the land north of the Ohio River. Little Turtle led his warriors to the river.
The Battle Begins
The morning of November 4 was cold and ominous. The frost on the ground and the steam rising from the Wabash River only helped to make the scene more surreal. As the Americans ate their breakfast and drank their coffee, Little Turtle and his army assembled in the woods past the clearing on the north side of the river. Blue Jacket and Little Turtle went over their plans one last time; every element had to be synchronized if they hoped to achieve victory. Once they felt confident in their position Little Turtle ordered his men to slowly emerge from the woods into the clearing.
“Injuns, Injuns,” came a yell from an enlisted man. The first cries of “Injuns” multiplied and was repeated by more and more men who then ran confused throughout the camp. At that point Little Turtle and the Indians attacked the camp, focusing on the Kentuckians. The entire American camp was in disarray and even more so among the Kentucky militia, that is the ones who had not deserted. Little Turtle focused on the Kentuckians because their guns did not have bayonets, they appeared to have lower morale then the regulars, and he assumed their training was of lower quality as well. Little Turtle also probably knew the psychological significance of engaging the Kentuckians first. The Kentuckians had driven many Indians from their territory so this was now a chance for the young Indian warriors to get some revenge. The Miami chief also probably surmised that if he could send the Kentuckians reeling then it would have a domino effect on the rest of the American camp. Little Turtle was correct.
Buckongahelas may have been the one to lead the charge against the Kentuckians. The Delaware chief let out a blood curdling yell and then led the charge with his tomahawk high in the air. Buckongahelas chopped through the Kentuckians like they were butter, chopping skulls, limbs, and whatever else was in his way. The other Indian warriors were also cutting through the Kentuckians very quickly and efficiently. The Kentuckians that stayed to fight did admirably, but the overwhelming majority quickly left the battle, which left the ones who stayed to be massacred. Buckonagahelas noticed that a few of his warriors were taking scalps of the dead Kentuckians. “Not now,” said the Delaware chief as he motioned back towards the woods. They had done their part so far so Buckongahelas and his men retreated back into the forest to await the next stage of Little Turtle’s strategy.
General St. Clair placed the Kentucky militia to the side of the camp that way if they retreated, which they did, then the effect of their actions would be minimal on the rest of the camp. St. Clair’s logic was sound, but as the Kentuckians were retreating other problems began to manifest. As St. Clair watched some of the Kentuckians running south, presumably back to Kentucky, others were being hacked and scalped with tomahawks. The situation quickly became desperate for the Americans. “Ready the cannons,” commanded St. Clair. As the cannons were loaded and the first shots were fired, St. Clair quickly learned that they were aimed too high as the cannon balls sailed over the Indians’ heads and into the forest behind them. Before the Americans could recalibrate the cannons’ trajectories, they were overrun by Indian warriors so they had to spike the barrels, which made them inoperable for the remainder of the battle. Possibly because St. Clair knew that defeat was imminent he also ordered the cannons quickly buried, which benefited American General Anthony Wayne about one year later.
Little Turtle knew that in order to defeat the Americans that the Indians had to rely on their strengths, particularly unconventional warfare. He knew that if his warriors lined up and fought the way the Americans, French, and British did then they had no chance of victory. Scattering the Kentucky militia was the first part of his plan; sending snipers at the American officers was the second part. Little Turtle was familiar with both military insignias and the chain of command, which meant that if an officer goes down then the Americans would be forced to scramble for a replacement. “The more stripes the better,” said Little Turtle to one of his warriors as he handed him a musket. Before the battle, Little Turtle and Blue Jacket gathered their best marksmen, gave them guns, and assigned them positions in the woods where they could pick off American officers with impunity. As American officers began to fall from sniper fire, the chain of command was broken and the American camp became even more demoralized.
“How much more powder,” asked Little Turtle to a British agent named Simons. “Even to take it to em for a few hours I suppose, then your boys will have to take theirs,” replied the Brit. Despite the Treaty of Paris, the British remained a ubiquitous presence in the Northwest Territory. Besides the construction of Fort Miamis, which was in violation of the Treaty, British traders and merchants had their own post at the Glaze community and many agents lived among the Northwestern tribes, giving them modern weapons, supplies, and guidance on how to fight against American military tactics. The reasons for the continued British presence in the Northwest were actually a bit complex. The primary reason stemmed from British reluctance to relinquish any part of their empire combined with the desire to keep any other countries from gaining more geo-political power. By keeping a presence in the Northwest the British were able to fulfill both objectives as they used the Indians as their proxy to limit American western settlement, while also staying active in the affairs of North America. Other reasons for continued British presence in the region was less official as the many British trappers, merchants, and frontiersmen often felt more comfortable away from the cities where there was more personal freedom. Many of these men also married Indian women and were adopted into tribes, which made them loyal to their Indian hosts. Whatever the reasons for continued British presence in the region, any official presence would have been in violation of the Treaty of Paris and so agents like Simons were rarely recorded in any official documents.
Avoiding the Bayonets
After about an hour of fighting, St. Clair noticed something that could have given him an advantage and a possible key to victory over Little Turtle. Other than the massacre of the Kentucky militiamen, the Indian warriors only engaged in limited fighting with the American regulars. The Indians would hit the regulars and then retreat to their wooded sanctuary before launching another sortie at the Americans. St. Clair also noticed that the Indians were particularly reluctant to attack soldiers that had their bayonets fixed. Although Indians used muskets during the Northwestern Indian War, they usually used them in a sniper role and rarely fixed bayonets to their guns. On the other hand, the Indians had few remedies to fight against bayonets that were fixed at the end of long muskets. “Colonel Darke, prepare your battalion to charge with fixed bayonets,” commanded St. Clair to Colonel William Darke. Darke was a stout and somewhat imposing figure.
Colonel Darke, like St.
Clair, was also a veteran of the French-Indian War and the American Revolution. The colonel was held aboard a prison ship for much of the Revolution and after the war, much like other veterans of the time, he had a brief career in government and politics. Darke’s only other military experience after the Revolution was in suppressing the Whisky Rebellion of 1784, but the Northwest Indian War was a much different situation and an entirely different foe.
Darke knew that his charge of the Indians could be a critical phase of the battle: if they successfully repulsed the Indians then they could regroup the camp and defeat the enemy, but if they were unsuccessful then the battle was probably over. Darke also had a personal reason to lead a successful charge because his youngest son Joseph was fighting at his side. “Fix bayonets . . . charge!” exclaimed Darke as he and his men charged the Indians. Apparently, Little Turtle also conceived of a plan to neutralize the American bayonets. As the Americans charged towards the Indians, yelling with the look of death in their eyes, the Indians turned and retreated for the forest. Some of the slower Indians were caught and impaled on American bayonets, but most were able to reach the safety of the forest where reinforcements were waiting. Once in the forest, the Americans no longer had the advantage of an open clearing from which they could charge with their bayonets. The Americans also lost the initiative, which then went to the Indians who outnumbered and encircled their enemy and then quickly hacked them to pieces. Colonel Darke suffered wounds that left him lying in his own blood. Although the Colonel survived, he watched helplessly as his son Joseph was hacked up by Indian warriors. Darke’s charge was not successful in its primary objective of breaking the Indian advance, but it did give St. Clair and the surviving Americans cover, which they used to escape.
True Crime Stories Volume 4: 12 Shocking True Crime Murder Cases (True Crime Anthology) Page 48