35. See Nina Tumarkin, Lenin Lives! The Lenin Cult in Soviet Russia (Cambridge, Mass., 1997), 208.
36. Robert H. McNeal, Stalin: Man and Ruler (New York, 1988), 89, doubts Stalin had anything to do with creating the cult.
37. Leonard Schapiro, The Communist Party of the Soviet Union, 2nd ed. (New York, 1971), 231–41.
38. See Sheila Fitzpatrick, The Cultural Front: Power and Culture in Revolutionary Russia (Ithaca, N.Y., 1992), 49.
39. See 1. A. Sats, cited in Roy Medvedev, On Stalin and Stalinism (Oxford, 1979), 46.
40. See Mikhail Heller and Aleksandr M. Nekrich, Utopia in Power: The History of the Soviet Union from 1917 to the Present (New York, 1986), 184-85.
41. Stalin, Sochineniia, vol. 6, 324-57.
42. See Isaac Deutscher, The Prophet Unarmed: Trotsky, 1921–1929 (New York, 1959), 158-60.
43. Cited in Medvedev, Let History Judge, 154.
44. See his discussion of his critics in Stalin, Sochineniia, vol. 7, 353-91 (Dec. 23, 1925).
45. Medvedev, Let History Judge, 155.
46. Tucker, Stalin as Revolutionary, 393.
47. Cited in Cohen, Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution, 240.
48. Stalin, Sochineniia, vol. 10, 172-205.
49. Medvedev, Let History Judge, 169-73; Schapiro, Communist Party of the Soviet Union, 303-8; Tucker, Stalin as Revolutionary, 404.
50. See Stalin, Sochineniia, vol. 10, 354-71.
CHAPTER 9: STALIN’S NEW INITIATIVES
1. Stalin, Sochineniia, vol. 10, 305.
2. Ibid., 371.
3. Ibid., vol. 9, 322-61 (July 28, 1927), article.
4. Hiroaki Kuromiya, Freedom and Terror in the Donbas: A Ukrainian-Russian Borderland, 1870s-1990s (Cambridge, U.K., 1998), 143-45, 151.
5. Stephen F. Cohen, Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution: A Political Biography, 1888-1938 (New York, 1974), 281.
6. For an overview, see William Chase, “Stalin as Producer: The Moscow Show Trials and the Production of Mortal Threats,” in Sarah Davies and James R. Harris, eds., Stalin: A New History (Cambridge, U.K., 2005), 226-48.
7. See Arkady Vaksberg, Stalin’s Prosecutor: The Life of Andrei Vyshinsky (New York, 1990), 42-45.
8. Hiroaki Kuromiya, Stalin’s Industrial Revolution (Cambridge, U.K., 1988), 27.
9. Stalin, Sochineniia, vol. 11, 172 (July 9, 1928).
10. Stalin to Molotov, Sept. 30, 1930, in Lars T. Lih, Oleg V. Naumov, and Oleg V. Khlevniuk, eds., Stalin’s Letters to Molotov, 1925-1936 (London, 1995), 200–1.
11. See Paul R. Gregory, The Political Economy of Stalinism: Evidence from the Soviet Secret Archives (New York, 2004), 34-48.
12. Stalin to Molotov, Aug. 29, 1929, in Lih, Naumov, and Khlevniuk, Stalin’s Letters, 175.
13. See Stephen Kotkin, Magnetic Mountain: Stalinism as a Civilization (Berkeley, Calif., 1995), 31–32.
14. Stalin, Sochineniia, vol. 11, 248 (Nov. 19, 1928), speech.
15. See Richard Cartwright Austin, Building Utopia: Erecting Russia’s First Modern City, 1930 (London, 2004), 18, 51–56.
16. Robert Lewis, “Foreign Economic Relations,” in R. W. Davies, Mark Harrison, and Stephen G. Wheatcroft, eds., The Economic Transformation of the Soviet Union, 1913-1945 (New York, 1994), 198-215.
17. Cited in Austin, Building Utopia, 13.
18. For the above, see Kotkin, Magnetic Mountain, 50, 86, 108-23.
19. Stalin, Sochineniia, vol. 12, 118, 135.
20. Sheila Fitzpatrick, Everyday Stalinism: Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times: Soviet Russia in the 1930s (New York, 1999), 70.
21. See ibid., 6, 18; Robert C. Tucker, Stalin in Power: The Revolution from Above, 1928-1941 (New York, 1990), 101–2.
22. Ante Ciliga from Yugoslavia, cited in Mikhail Heller and Aleksandr M. Nekrich, Utopia in Power: The History of the Soviet Union from 1917 to the Present (New York, 1986), 205.
23. OGPU report, Dec. 1927-Jan. 1928, in Lynne Viola et al., eds., The War Against the Peasantry, 1927-1930: The Tragedy of the Soviet Countryside (New Haven, Conn., 2005), 34-44.
24. For Stalin’s reports, see Viola et al., War Against the Peasantry, 69-75; Cohen, Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution, 278.
25. Moshe Lewin, Russian Peasants and Soviet Power: A Study of Collectivization (New York, 1968), 241.
26. See two OGPU statistical reports, Nov. 4, 1929, in Viola et al., War Against the Peasantry, 150–51.
27. For these stories and more, see Elena Osokina, Our Daily Bread: Socialist Distribution and the Art of Survival in Stalin’s Russia, 1927-1941 (New York, 2001), 21–27.
28. Stalin to Molotov, Aug. 10, 1929, in Lih, Navmov, and Khlevniuk, Stalin’s Letters, 165-66.
29. Stalin, Sochineniia, vol. 11, 1–9 (Jan. 6, 1928), speech.
30. Osokina, Our Daily Bread, 36, 41.
31. Tucker, Stalin in Power, 138.
32. Stalin, Sochineniia, vol. 12, 166-67.
33. Ibid., 170.
34. See Lynne Viola, “The Other Archipelago: Kulak Deportation to the North in 1930,” Slavic Review (2001), 734.
35. Politburo decree, Jan. 30, 1930, reprinted in Viola et al., War Against the Peasantry, 228-34.
36. Yagoda memorandum, Jan. 23, 1930, in Viola et al., War Against the Peasantry, 237-38.
37. Simon Sebag Montefiore, Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar (New York, 2004), 46-47.
38. Gorky, Nov. 15, 1930, in Heller and Nekrich, Utopia in Power, 236.
39. See James R. Harris, The Great Urals: Regionalism and the Evolution of the Soviet System (Ithaca, N.Y. 1999), 116-18.
40. Sebag Montefiore, Stalin, 46.
41. See Lev Kopelev, The Education of a True Believer (New York, 1980), 186-87.
42. Sheila Fitzpatrick, Stalin’s Peasants: Resistance and Survival in the Russian Village After Collectivization (New York, 1994), 48-62.
43. Lewin, Russian Peasants and Soviet Power, 502.
44. Nicolas Werth, “A State Against Its People: Violence, Repression, and Terror in the Soviet Union,” in Stéphane Courtois et al., The Black Book of Communism (Cambridge, Mass., 1999), 147-48.
CHAPTER 10: STALIN SOLIDIFIES HIS GRIP
1. OGPU report, July 31, 1931, for 1930, in Lynne Viola et al., eds., The War Against the Peasantry, 1927-1930: The Tragedy of the Soviet Countryside (New Haven, Conn., 2005), 339-40. See also Stephen G. Wheatcroft, “Towards Explaining the Changing Levels of Stalinist Repression in the 1930s: Mass Killings,” in Stephen G. Wheatcroft, ed., Challenging Traditional Views of Russian History (London, 2002), 112-46.
2. See the report (not before July 1, 1930) compiled for the Sixteenth Party Congress, in Viola et al., War Against the Peasantry, 328.
3. Stalin, Sochineniia, vol. 12, 191–99.
4. See the documents in Viola et al., War Against the Peasantry, 362-66.
5. See Lynne Viola, Peasant Rebels Under Stalin: Collectivization and the Culture of Peasant Resistance (New York, 1996), 234-40.
6. George Leggett, The Cheka: Lenin’s Political Police (Oxford, 1981), 352; the constitution was finally ratified on January 31, 1924.
7. Anne Applebaum, Gulag: A History (New York, 2003), 48-50; Edwin Bacon, The Gulag at War: Stalin’s Forced Labor System in the Light of the Archives (New York, 1995), 46-47.
8. See the series, with many editors, Istoria stalinskogo Gulaga: konets 1920–kh-pervaia polovina 1950–kh godov: sobranie dokumentov v semi tomakh (Moscow, 2004), here doc. 3 in N. V. Petrov (ed.), Istoria stalinskogo Gulaga (Moscow, 2004), vol. 2, 58-59; also Oleg V. Khlevniuk, The History of the Gulag: From Collectivization to the Great Terror (New Haven, Conn., 2004), 9-12.
9. See his note, April 12, 1930, in Petrov (ed.), Istoria stalinskovo Gylaga, vol. 2, 80–81.
10. Michael Jakobson, Origins of the Gulag: The Soviet Prison Camp System, 1917-1934 (Lexington, Ky., 1993), 125-26.
11. Oleg W. Chlewnjuk (a.k.a. Oleg V. Khlevniuk), Das Politbüro: Mechanismen der Macht in der Sowjetunion der dreißiger Jahre (Hamburg, 1998), 52-54
.
12. Stalin to Molotov, Sept. 7, 1930, in Lars T. Lih, Oleg V. Naumov, and Oleg V. Khlevniuk, eds., Stalin’s Letters to Molotov, 1925-1936 (London, 1995), 212-13.
13. See doc. 32, in A. B. Bezborodov and V. M. Khrustalev, eds., Istoria stalinskogo Gulaga (Moscow, 2004), vol. 4, 110. For further analysis, see J. Arch Getty, Gábor Tamás Rittersporn, and Viktor N. Zemskov, “Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-war Years: A First Approach on the Basis of Archival Evidence,” AHR (1993), 1017-49. For 1930, see Stephen G. Wheatcroft, “Victims of Stalinism and the Soviet Secret Police: The Comparability and Reliability of the Archival Data—Not the Last Word,” EAS (1999), 315-45.
14. See doc. 5 (1935), in Bezborodov and Khrustalev, Istoria stalinskogo Gulaga, vol. 4, 68-69.
15. Stalin to Molotov, n.d., not before March 1931, in Lih, Naumov, and Khlevniuk, Stalin’s Letters, 228.
16. See James R. Harris, The Great Urals: Regionalism and the Evolution of the Soviet System (Ithaca, N.Y., 1999), 118-22.
17. See Nicolas Werth, “A State Against Its People: Violence, Repression, and Terror in the Soviet Union,” in Stéphane Courtois et al., The Black Book of Communism (Cambridge, Mass., 1999), 153-55.
18. Ibid., 155; for the northern camps in 1930, see Lynne Viola, “The Other Archipelago: Kulak Deportation to the North in 1930,” Slavic Review (2001), 752, which shows many prisoners had run away.
19. Stalin, Sochineiia, vol. 13, 38-39.
20. Ibid., 41–42.
21. James Lee Heizer, “The Cult of Stalin, 1929-1939” (Ph.D. diss., University of Kentucky, 1977), 59-68.
22. The phrase is from R. W. Davies et al., eds., The Stalin-Kaganovich Correspondence, 1931–36 (New Haven, Conn., 2003), 16.
23. Simon Sebag Montefiore, Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar (New York, 2004), 182.
CHAPTER 11: NAZI PARTY AS SOCIAL MOVEMENT
1. See, for example, the autobiographies reprinted in Theodore Abel, Why Hitler Came to Power (repr., Cambridge, Mass., 1986), 282.
2. May 22, 1926, article, in Hitler: Reden, Schriften, vol. 1, 445.
3. Ibid., 443, 446.
4. William Sheridan Allen, The Nazi Seizure of Power: The Experience of a Single German Town, 1922-1945 (New York, 1984), 144; Henry Ashby Turner Jr., German Big Business and the Rise of Hitler (New York, 1985), 112-15.
5. Hitler: Reden, Schriften, vol. 1, 443.
6. Brigitte Hamann, Winifred Wagner oder Hitlers Bayreuth (Munich, 2002), 164-66.
7. Nov. 15, 1936, entry, in Elke Fröhlich et al., eds., Die Tagebücher von Joseph Goebbels (Munich, 2005ff.), part 1, vol. 3, part 2, 252.
8. Hitler: Reden, Schriften, vol. 1,432 n. 7.
9. May 22, 1926, speech, in ibid., 451–52.
10. Hitler: Reden, Schriften, vol. 1, 15-16; Peter Longerich, Die braunen Bataillone: Geschichte der SA (Munich, 1989), 45-59.
11. Michael H. Kater, The Nazi Party: A Social Profile of Members and Leaders, 1919-1945 (Cambridge, Mass., 1983), 169-72.
12. Noakes and Pridham, vol. 1, 52.
13. See, for example, the Jan. 26, 1927, police report from Oldenburg of a gathering of twenty thousand, in ibid., 59-61.
14. See, for example, the Aug. 21, 1927, speech to a Party rally in Nuremberg, in Hitler: Reden, Schriften, vol. 2, part 2, 497.
15. Hitler: Reden, Schriften, vol. 2, part 2, 593.
16. Ibid., 771–72.
17. Dietrich Orlow, The History of the Nazi Party, 1919-1933 (Pittsburgh, 1969), 119.
18. See Conan Fischer, The German Communists and the Rise of Nazism (New York, 1991), 102.
19. Himmler carried on the complete correspondence of the propaganda leadership from 1926 up to and including the “breakthrough” elections of September 1930. See Udo Kissenkoetter, Gregor Strasser und die NSDAP (Stuttgart, 1978), 59.
20. Ibid., 58.
21. Ibid.; Gerhard Paul, Aufstand der Bilder: Die NS-Propaganda vor 1933 (Bonn, 1992), 67.
22. Orlow, History of the Nazi Party, 158-61.
23. Hitler: Reden, Schriften, vol. 3, part 1, 35 n. 1, 36 n. 7. See Paul, Aufstand der Bilder, 69; Kater, Nazi Party, 263.
24. Hitler: Reden, Schriften, vol. 3, part 1, 56-62.
25. Tagebücher von Goebbels, part 1, vol. 1, part 3, 124-25.
26. Hitler: Reden, Schriften, vol. 3, part 1, 236-40.
27. Ibid., 245-53.
28. See Orlow, History of the Nazi Party, 161–62. For the insistence that this was Himmler’s original idea, see Longerich, Die braunen Bataillone, 76-77; Kissenkoetter, Strasser, 56-57. On the speakers and their fees, see Turner, German Big Business, 119.
29. See the table in Orlow, History of the Nazi Party, 153.
30. Oct. 20, 1929, entry in Tagebücher von Goebbels, part 1, vol. 1, part 3, 353; on cooperation, see the Nov. 22, 1929, entry, 377.
31. Statistics in Hitler: Reden, Schriften, vol. 3, part 2,478 n. 9.
32. April 18, 1929, entry, in Tagebücher von Goebbels, part 1, vol. 1, part 3, 229-30; also Sept. 7, 1929, entry, 338-39.
33. Hitler: Reden, Schriften, vol. 3, part 2, 335.
34. Jill Stephenson, The Nazi Organization of Women (London, 1981), 36, 50.
35. Hitler: Reden, Schriften, vol. 3, part 2, 354-55 n. 3.
36. See ibid., 318-35; for Hitler’s speech of August 4, 345-54.
37. Ibid., 469 n. 1; Eric G. Reiche, The Development of the SA in Nürnberg, 1922-1934 (Cambridge, U.K., 1986), 90; Oct. 28, 1929, entry in Tagebücher von Goebbels, part 1, vol. 1, part 3, 358-59; on Berlin, see Nov. 18, 1929, entry, in Tagebücher von Goebbels, 374-75.
38. Hitler: Reden, Schriften, vol. 3, part 2, 538-41.
CHAPTER 12: NAZISM EXPLOITS ECONOMIC DISTRESS
1. Gustavo Corni and Horst Gies, eds., Blut und Boden: Rassenideologie und Agrarpolitik im Staat Hitlers (Idstein, 1994), 180.
2. J. E. Farquharson, The Plough and the Swastika: The NSDAP and Agriculture in Germany, 1928-1945 (London, 1976), 25-31.
3. Hitler: Reden, Schriften, vol. 3, part 3, 115-20. See also Jeremy Noakes, The Nazi Party in Lower Saxony, 1921–1933 (Oxford, 1971), 124-25.
4. Henry Ashby Turner Jr., German Big Business and the Rise of Hitler (New York, 1985), 118.
5. Gustavo Corni and Horst Gies, Brot, Butter, Kanonen: Die Ernährungswirtschaft in Deutschland unter der Diktatur Hitlers (Berlin, 1997), 22.
6. Jan. 3, 1933, speech, in Hitler: Reden, Schriften, vol. 5, part 2, 317-19.
7. March 7, 1930, speech, in ibid., vol. 3, part 3, 120.
8. Heinrich August Winkler, Weimar, 1918-1933: Die Geschichte der ersten deutschen Demokratie (Munich, 1998), 372.
9. Sebastian Haffner, Geschichte eines Deutschen: Die Erinnerungen, 1914-1933 (Munich, 2000), 86.
10. Winkler, Weimar, 374-81.
11. Dietmar Petzina, Werner Abelshauser, and Anselm Faust, eds., Sozialgeschichtliches Arbeitsbuch III: Materialien zur Statistik des Deutschen Reiches, 1914-1945 (Munich, 1978), 119.
12. Jürgen W. Falter, Hitler’s Wähler (Munich, 1991), 292.
13. Table 7 in M. Rainer Lepsius, “From Fragmented Party Democracy to Government by Emergency Decree and National Socialist Takeover,” in Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stephan, eds., The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes: Europe (Baltimore, 1978), 56.
14. See Statistisches Jahrbuch für das Deutsche Reich (1933), 291; (1941–42), 426.
15. David F. Crew, Germans on Welfare: From Weimar to Hitler (New York, 1998), 70–71.
16. Detlev J. K. Peukert, Die Weimarer Republik: Krisenjahre der klassischen Moderne (Frankfurt am Main, 1987), 246, 271.
17. See Paul Weindling, Health, Race, and German Politics Between National Unification and Nazism, 1870–1945 (Cambridge, U.K., 1989), 457-62; Atina Grossmann, Reforming Sex: The German Movement for Birth Control and Abortion Reform, 1920–1950 (New York, 1995), 79-135.
18. Turner, German Big Business, 118.
19. Aug. 18, 1930, speech, in Hitler: Reden, Schriften, vol. 3, part 3, 356, 357.
20. Ibid., 420 n. 4.
21. Sept. 16, 1930, speech, in ibid., 420–30.
22. According to table 6 in Lepsius, “Fragmented Party Democracy,” 52.
23. See Heinrich Brüning, Memoiren, 1918-1934 (Munich, 1970), 633.
24. June 4, 1932, entry, in Harry Kessler, In the Twenties: The Diaries of Harry Kessler (New York, 1971), 419.
25. Winkler, Weimar, 481.
26. Julia Sneeringer, Winning Women’s Votes: Propaganda and Politics in Weimar Germany (Chapel Hill, N.C., 2002), 266.
27. Falter, Hitler’s Wähler, 364-75.
28. Oct. 13, 1932, speech, in Hitler: Reden, Schriften, vol. 5, part 2, 22 n. 8.
29. Table 4 in Lepsius, “Fragmented Party Democracy,” 49.
30. Detlef Schmiechen-Ackermann, Nationalsozialismus und Arbeitermilieus: Der nationalsozialistische Angriff auf die proletarischen Wohnquartiere und die Reaktion in den sozialistischen Vereinen (Bonn, 1998), 386, 394, 399.
31. Sven Reichardt, Faschistische Kampfbünde: Gewalt und Gemeinschaft im italienischen Squadrismus und in der deutschen SA (Cologne, 2002), 258-60.
32. Turner, German Big Business, 116-17.
33. See Sept. 1, 1930, police report, in Hitler: Reden, Schriften, vol. 3, part 3, 378-79.
34. Peter Longerich, Die braunen Bataillone: Geschichte der SA (Munich, 1989), 110–11.
35. Feb. 22, 1932, entry, in Elke Fröhlich et al., eds., Die Tagebücher von Joseph Goebbels (Munich, 2005ff.), part 1, vol. 2, part 2, 224-25.
36. Hitler: Reden, Schriften, vol. 4, part 3, 161, 202.
37. Ian Kershaw, Hitler, 1889-1936: Hubris (London, 1998), 363.
38. Hitler: Reden, Schriften, vol. 5, part 1, 52-53.
39. Ibid., 57-98.
40. Longerich, Die braunen Bataillone, 122.
41. Winkler, Weimar, 489-90; James M. Diehl, Paramilitary Politics in Weimar Germany (Bloomington, Ind., 1977), 286-88.
42. See Anthony McElligott, Contested City: Municipal Politics and the Rise of Nazism in Altona, 1917-1937 (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1998), 194.
43. See Geoffrey J. Giles, Students and National Socialism in Germany (Princeton, N.J., 1985), 81.
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