by Adam Winkler
9. See Kupperman, The Jamestown Project, 151, 243; Miller, The First Frontier, 18.
10. See Carville V. Earle, “Environment, Disease, and Mortality in Early Virginia,” in The Chesapeake in the Seventeenth Century: Essays on Anglo-American Society, ed. Thad W. Tate and David L. Ammerman (1979), 96.
11. See Dennis B. Blanton, “Drought as a Factor in the Jamestown Colony, 1607–1612,” Historical Archaeology 34 (2000): 74, 78; Kupperman, The Jamestown Project, 163, 227; Bailyn, The Barbarous Years, 53.
12. On Shakespeare’s inspiration, see Bernhard, A Tale of Two Colonies, 3; Kieran Doherty, Sea Venture: Shipwreck, Survival, and the Salvation of Jamestown (2008), 163.
13. Where necessary for clarity, old English is translated into contemporary English throughout this book. On the “starving time,” see Miller, The First Frontier, 22; Paula Neely, “Jamestown Colonists Resorted to Canibalism,” National Geographic, May 1, 2013, available at http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/13/130501-jamestown-cannibalism-archeology-science/.
14. West’s commitment to the Virginia Company was one of the subjects he touched upon in Sir Thomas West, “The Relation of the Lord De-La-Ware” (1611), reprinted in Lyon Gardiner Tyler, Narratives of Early Virginia, 1606–1625 (1907), 209.
15. On de Luna’s ill-fated effort in Pensacola, see William S. Coker, “Pensacola, 1686–1821,” in Archaeology of Colonial Pensacola, ed. Judith Ann Bense (1999), 5. On the Lost Colony of Roanoke, see Kupperman, The Jamestown Project, 3–5, 32, 100.
16. See “A True and Sincere Declaration of the Purpose and Ends of the Plantation Begun in Virginia,” originally published in 1610 and reprinted in Alexander Brown, The Genesis of the United States (1890), 1:338; Kupperman, The Jamestown Project, 241; Bailyn, The Barbarous Years, 66, 72.
17. Miller, The First Frontier, 23; Kupperman, The Jamestown Project, 23–24.
18. See Bailyn, The Barbarous Years, 66–67; Frank E. Grizzard, Jamestown Colony: A Political, Social, and Cultural History (2007), xxxiii.
19. See Alexander Brown, The Genesis of the United States (1891), 2:1049; Alexander Brown, “Sir Thomas West. Third Lord De La Warr,” 9 The Magazine of American History 18, 28, 30 (1883).
20. See William Robert Scott, The Constitution and Finance of English, Scottish, and Irish Joint-Stock Companies to 1720 (1951), 1:255; Wesley Frank Craven, The Virginia Company of London, 1606–1624 (1993), 31–34; Kupperman, The Jamestown Project, 261.
21. Scott, The Constitution and Finance of English, Scottish, and Irish Joint-Stock Companies, 1:255; Craven, The Virginia Company of London, 31–34; Kupperman, The Jamestown Project, 261; Miller, The First Frontier, 26.
22. See Jack Beatty, “The Corporate Roots of American Government,” in Colossus: How the Corporation Changed America, ed. Jack Beatty (2001), 17; Theodore K. Rabb, “Sir Edwin Sandys and the Parliament of 1604,” 69 American Historical Review 646 (1964); Henrietta Elizabeth Marshall, This Country of Ours (1917), 75–76; Bailyn, The Barbarous Years, 75.
23. See Craven, The Virginia Company of London, 140; Beatty, “Corporate Roots,” 17–18.
24. See Kupperman, The Jamestown Project, 293.
25. See Sir William Throckmorton, Richard Berkeley, et al., “Ordinances Directions and Instructions to Captaine John Woodlefe” (September 4, 1619), in The Records of the Virginia Company of London, ed. Susan Myra Kingsbury (1933), 3:207; Charles E. Hatch, The First Seventeen Years: Virginia, 1607–1624 (2009), 44; H. Graham Woodlief, “History of the First Thanksgiving, Virginia Thanksgiving Festival,” available at http://virginiathanksgivingfestival.com/history/; Gloria Peoples-Elam, An American Heritage Story: Tracing the Ancestry of William Henry Peoples & Elizabeth Washington Peoples (2014), 86.
26. Bailyn, The Barbarous Years, 82–87; Kupperman, The Jamestown Project, 287, 320.
27. See Bailyn, The Barbarous Years, 322.
28. See Kupperman, The Jamestown Project, 2–3.
29. On how the corporate form influenced the institutions and practices of American democracy, see David A. Ciepley, “Is the U.S. Government a Corporation? The Corporate Origins of Modern Constitutionalism,” 111 American Political Science Review 418 (2017); Stephen Innes, “From Corporation to Commonwealth,” in Colossus: How the Corporation Changed America, ed. Jack Beatty, 18; Andrew C. McLaughlin, The Foundations of American Constitutionalism (1932).
30. On the history of the Massachusetts Bay Company and its charter, see Frances Rose-Troup, The Massachusetts Bay Company and Its Predecessors (1930); Charles J. Hilkey, Legal Development in Colonial Massachusetts, 1630–1686 (1910); Stephen Innes, Creating the Commonwealth: The Economic Culture of Puritan New England (1995); Barbara A. Moe, The Charter of the Massachusetts Bay Colony: A Primary Source Investigation of the 1629 Charter (2002). The text of the charter can be found at http://avalon.law.yale.edu/17th_century/mass03.asp.
31. Corporate offices were themselves likely modeled on medieval English governmental officeholding practices, which heavily influenced American constitutionalism. See Karen Orren, “Officers’ Rights: Toward a Unified Field Theory of American Constitutional Development,” 34 Law & Society Review 873 (2000).
32. See McLaughlin, The Foundations of American Constitutionalism, 39; Scott, The Constitution and Finance, 313–315. On Winthrop, see Francis J. Bremer, John Winthrop: America’s Forgotten Founding Father (2003); Rose-Troup, The Massachusetts Bay Company, 28 et seq.; Innes, Creating the Commonwealth, 64 et seq.
33. See McLaughlin, The Foundations of American Constitutionalism, 42–45; Innes, Creating the Commonwealth, 19–20.
34. See Hilkey, “Legal Development,” 22–23.
35. See McLaughlin, The Foundations of American Constitutionalism, 55–56.
36. See Bernard Schwartz, The Great Rights of Mankind: A History of the Bill of Rights (1992), 36–39.
37. Ibid., 41–51; John Phillip Reid, Constitutional History of the American Revolution: The Authority of Rights (2003), 159–160.
38. See McLaughlin, The Foundations of American Constitutionalism, 47.
39. On the East India Company, see H. V. Bowen, The Business of Empire: The East India Company and Imperial Britain, 1765–1833 (2006); Marguerite Eyer Wilbur, The East India Company: And the British Empire in the Far East (1945). On Elihu Yale, see Wilbur, The East India Company, 311.
40. On the East India Company’s finances, see Benjamin L. Carp, Defiance of the Patriots (2010), 13–23; Wilbur, The East India Company, 307–311.
41. Bowen, The Business of Empire, 30–31.
42. See Carp, Defiance of the Patriots.
43. See Bernard Bailyn, The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (1992), 189–191, 201, 222.
44. See Reid, Constitutional History of the American Revolution, 145, 160–167.
45. Ibid., 189.
46. Ibid., 174, 188; Schwartz, The Great Rights of Mankind, 52.
47. On the colonial protests, see Gary B. Nash, The Unknown American Revolution: The Unruly Birth of Democracy and the Struggle to Create America (2006), 45–49; Carp, Defiance of the Patriots, 65–68.
48. See Ray Raphael, A People’s History of the American Revolution: How Common People Shaped the Fight for Independence (2012), 18.
49. See Wilbur, The East India Company, 313–314.
50. See Robert Allison, The American Revolution: A Concise History (2011), 16–17.
51. The value of the tea thrown overboard is subject to some dispute. The figure in the text comes from Wilbur, The East India Company, 314–315.
CHAPTER 2: THE FIRST CORPORATE RIGHTS CASE
1. On the Bank of the United States, see Edward S. Kaplan, The Bank of the United States and the American Economy (1999); James O. Wettereau, “New Light on the First Bank of the United States,” 61 Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 263 (1937); John H. Wood, A History of Central Banking in Great Britain and the United States (2005); James Stuart Olson, “Bank of the United States,” in Encyclopedia of the Industrial Revolution in America (200
2), 21.
2. See Henry Clay, “On a National Bank” (1811), in The Life and Speeches of Henry Clay, ed. James Barrett Swain (1843), 1:80.
3. See Jerry W. Markham, A Financial History of the United States: From Christopher Columbus to the Robber Barons (2002), 1:126.
4. On the Bank of North America, see Kaplan, The Bank of the United States, ix; Simeon E. Baldwin, “American Business Corporations Before 1789,” 8 American Historical Review 449, 458–459 (1903); Lawrence Lewis, A History of the Bank of North America (1882); Todd Wallack, “Which Bank is the Oldest? Accounts Vary,” Boston Globe, December 20, 2011, available at http://www.bostonglobe.com/business/2011/12/20/oldest-bank-america-accounts-vary/WAqvIlmipfFhyKsx8bhgAJ/story.html.
5. See Wood, A History of Central Banking, 124–125.
6. See Wettereau, “New Light on the First Bank,” 272, 284.
7. See Markham, A Financial History of the United States, 1:124–126, 281.
8. See Markham, A Financial History of the United States, 1:126; Charles W. Calomiris, “Banking: Modern Period,” in Joel Mokyr, Oxford Encyclopedia of Economic History (2003), 1:227–228.
9. See W. Calvin Smith, “Banks, Law, and Politics: The Origins, Outcome and Significance of the Deveaux Case,” Proceedings of the South Carolina Historical Association, Spring 1991, 9, 11; Wettereau, “New Light on the First Bank,” 276–277.
10. See Smith, “Banks, Law, and Politics,” 11.
11. On Peter Deveaux, see Lucian Lamar Knight, Georgia’s Landmarks, Memorials, and Legends (1914), 539; Wm. Overton Harris, “A Corporation as a Citizen in Connection With the Jurisdiction of the United States Courts,” 1 Virginia Law Review 507 (1914); Georgia Historical Society, “Deveaux, Peter, 1752–1826,” available at http://georgiahistory.pastperfect-online.com/37659cgi/mweb.exe?request=record;id=Deveaux,%20Peter,%201752-1826;type=702; George White, Historical Collections of Georgia (1855), 219. For a detailed history of the Deveaux litigation, see Smith, “Banks, Law, and Politics,” 9.
12. See Stuart Banner, Anglo-American Securities Regulation: Cultural and Political Roots, 1690–1860 (2002), 75–80; Ron Harris, “The Bubble Act: Its Passage and Its Effects on Business Organization,” 54 Journal of Economic History 610 (1994); Pauline Maier, “The Revolutionary Origins of the American Business Corporation,” 50 William and Mary Quarterly 51 (1993).
13. James Stancliffe Davis, Essays in the Earlier History of American Corporations (1917), 332 et seq.; John Adams, Letters to John Taylor, of Caroline, Virginia, in Reply to His Strictures on Some Parts of the Defence of the American Constitutions, in The Works of John Adams, Second President of the United States, ed. Charles Francis Adams (1856), 510.
14. On Roman societas and societas publicoranum, see Ulrike Malmendier, “Law and Finance ‘at the Origin,’ ” 47 Journal of Economic Literature 1076 (2009); Ulrike Malmendier, “Roman Shares,” in William N. Goetzmann and K. Geert Rouwenhorst, eds., The Origins of Value: The Financial Innovations that Created Modern Capital Markets (2005), 31. For a somewhat contrary view, see Andreas M. Fleckner, “Roman Business Associations” (unpublished manuscript, 2014), available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2472598. For earlier studies of Roman corporations, see Andrew Stephenson, A History of Roman Law (1912), 371–74; William Livesey Burdick, The Principles of Roman Law and Their Relation to Modern Law (1938), 282 et seq.
15. See Kevin J. R. Rosman et al., “Lead from Carthaginian and Roman Spanish Mines Isotopically Identified in Greenland Ice Dated from 600 B.C. to 300 A.D.,” 31 Environmental Science and Technology 3413 (1997).
16. On the many different kinds of late medieval corporations, see Eric Enlow, “The Corporate Conception of the State and the Origins of Limited Constitutional Government,” 6 Washington University Journal of Law & Policy 1, 3–8 (2001); John Micklethwait and Adrian Wooldridge, The Company: A Short History of a Revolutionary Idea (2003), chapter 1. Even the monarchy was seen as a corporation. See Frederic Maitland, “The Crown as a Corporation,” 17 Law Quarterly Review 131, 134–135 (1901).
17. On Blackstone, see Lewis C. Warden, The Life of Blackstone (1938), 13–14; David A. Lockmiller, Sir William Blackstone (1938), 10. On His Influence, See Albert W. Alschuler, “Rediscovering Blackstone,” 145 University Of Pennsylvania Law Review 1 (1996); Ian Williams, “Book Review: Blackstone and His Commentaries: Biography, Law, History,” 71 Cambridge Law Journal 223 (2012); Wilfred Prest, “Blackstone as Architect: Constructing the Commentaries,” 15 Yale Journal of Law & the Humanities 103 (2003).
18. See William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England, ed. Robert Malcolm Kerr (1876), 1:446.
19. On the human individual as the “paradigmatic legal actor,” see Meir Dan-Cohen, Rights, Persons, and Organizations: A Legal Theory for Bureaucratic Society (1986), 13.
20. In time, the principle that corporate acts beyond the charter were void came to be known as ultra vires. See H. Kent Greenfield, “Ultra Vires Lives!: A Stakeholder Analysis of Corporate Illegality (With Notes on How Corporate Law Could Reinforce International Law Norms),” 87 Virginia Law Review 1279 (2001); Stephen Griffin, “The Rise and Fall of the Ultra Vires Rule in Corporate Law,” 2 Mountbatten Journal of Legal Studies 1 (1998).
21. See Cedric Kushner Promotions, Ltd. v. King, 533 U.S. 158 (2001).
22. On Binney, see William Strong, An Eulogium on the Life and Character of Horace Binney (1876), 5–21; Robert R. Bell, The Philadelphia Lawyer: A History, 1735–1945 (1992), 145–155; John Hays Gardiner, Harvard (1914), 161.
23. See Smith, “Banks, Law, and Politics,” 12–13.
24. On corporate nationality, see Linda A. Mabry, “Multinational Corporations and U.S. Technology Policy: Rethinking the Concept of Corporate Nationality,” 87 Georgetown Law Journal 563, 581 (1999). See also Society for the Propagation of the Gospel v. Wheeler, 22 Fed. Cas. 756 (C.C.D. New Hampshire 1814).
25. See Bank of the United States v. Deveaux, 9 U.S. 61 (1809).
26. On veil piercing in corporate law, see Maurice Wormser, “Piercing the Veil of Corporate Entity,” 12 Columbia Law Review 496, 500, 501 (1912); Peter B. Oh, “Veil Piercing,” 89 Texas Law Review 81, 83 (2010–2011); Lorraine Talbot, Critical Company Law (2015), 24. For a comprehensive study of piercing-the-veil cases in corporate law, see Robert B. Thompson, “Piercing the Corporate Veil: An Empirical Study,” 76 Cornell Law Review 1036 (1991).
27. See Bank of the United States v. Deveaux, 2 Fed. Cas. 692, 692–693 (Cir. Ct. GA 1808).
28. See Justin Crowe, Building the Judiciary: Law, Courts, and the Politics of Institutional Development (2012), 1; Robert G. McCloskey, The American Supreme Court (5th ed., 2010), 1. On the business-friendly tendency of the Supreme Court, see Ian Millhiser, Injustices: The Supreme Court’s History of Comforting the Comfortable and Afflicting the Afflicted (2015).
29. See Anon., “The Supreme Court—Its Homes Past and Present,” 27 American Bar Association Journal 283 (1941); William C. Allen, History of the United States Capitol: A Chronicle of Design, Construction, and Politics (2001), 89, 107. There is some disagreement about whether Long’s Tavern was located where the current Supreme Court sits or across the street to the south, where the Library of Congress sits. According to Allen, Long’s Tavern was renovated and renamed the “Brick Capitol.” According to Kenneth Jost, The Supreme Court A–Z (2013), 212, the Supreme Court Building is located where the Brick Capitol used to be. Yet Jost also says that Long’s Tavern is where the Library of Congress is currently located. Suffice to say the exact location of the pub remains uncertain.
30. See Bank of the United States v. Deveaux, 9 U.S. 61 (1809).
31. See Hope Insurance Company v. Boardman, 9 U.S. 57 (1809). On Adams, see Harlow G. Unger, John Quincy Adams: A Life (2012); Fred Kaplan, John Quincy Adams: American Visionary (2014). See also William G. Ross, “John Quincy Adams,” in Great American Lawyers: An Encyclopedia, ed. John R. Vile (2001), 1:9; Charles Warren, The Supreme Court in United States History, 1821–1855 (1922), 1:390,
2:347. Adams is also credited with winning a later 1810 case, Fletcher v. Peck, 10 U.S. 87 (1810), but that case was in fact argued prior to the Hope Insurance case.
32. See Allen Sharp, “Presidents as Supreme Court Advocates: Before and After the White House,” 28 Journal of Supreme Court History 116, 118 (2003).
33. See Marc Leepson, What So Proudly We Hailed: Francis Scott Key, A Life (2014); Smith, “Banks, Law, and Politics.”
34. For a discussion of competing theories of the corporation, see Eric W. Orts, Business Persons: A Legal Theory of the Firm (2013), 9–51. Some scholars argue that corporate rights discussions should avoid metaphysical abstractions like personhood or associationalism. See, e.g., Richard Schragger and Micah Schwartzman, “Some Realism about Corporate Rights,” in Micah Schwartzman et al., The Rise of Corporate Religious Liberty (2016), 345.
35. See John Quincy Adams, Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, ed. Charles Francis Adams (1874), 546.
36. See Alexander M. Bickel, The Least Dangerous Branch: The Supreme Court at the Bar of Politics (1962), 1. See generally Jack Rakove, Revolutionaries: A New History of the Invention of America (2010), 377.
37. Mary Sarah Bilder, “The Corporate Origins of Judicial Review,” 116 Yale Law Journal 502 (2006).
38. See Marbury v. Madison, 5 U.S. 137 (1803).
39. See Hope Insurance Company v. Boardman, 9 U.S. 57 (1809).
40. See Bank of the United States v. Deveaux, 9 U.S. 61 (1809).
41. See Margaret M. Blair and Elizabeth Pollman, “The Derivative Nature of Corporate Constitutional Rights,” 56 William & Mary Law Review 1673, 1680 (2015).
42. See Smith, “Banks, Law, and Politics,” 13; McCulloch v. Maryland, 17 U.S. 316 (1819).
43. See Richard S. Grossman, Unsettled Account: The Evolution of Banking in the Industrialized World Since 1800 (2010), 225; Murray N. Rothbard, History of Money and Banking in the United States: The Colonial Era to World War II (2002), 69–72.