How the species came to India, and spread out across the world, is a fascinating story. James Cook, the son of a farm labourer, was a British explorer and expert map-maker who made three memorable voyages to various parts of the South Pacific between 1768 and 1776. On his first voyage, he took along Joseph Banks (eventually the director of the famous Royal Botanical Gardens in Kew) and other botanists. Banks and his colleagues collected and described a number of Australian plants, most of which were unknown to Western science until then.
Among these plants were a number of eucalyptus trees. The flowers of the eucalyptus are quite unusual, lending the trees their name. When the flower is still a young bud, the petals join to form a cap-like object that covers the top of the bud. European botanists named the genus Eucalyptus from the Greek words ‘eu’ (well) and ‘calyptos’ (covered) as a tribute to the unusual bud, enclosed and capped. Just before the bud opens, the cap falls off. What lies within, and looks like petals, is actually a mass of feathery, showy and attractive stamens. Within the stamens lies the pistil, the female reproductive part of the flower. Eucalyptus flowers have an important adaptation that helps to prevent self-pollination. First, the stamens mature and release pollen. At this time, the pistil is still young and immature and cannot receive the pollen. This reduces the likelihood of the flower mating within itself (which would be the worst form of genetic inbreeding one can imagine). Later, once the stamens have matured and released their pollen, the pistil matures, now ready to receive pollen from another flower and begins the cycle of life once again.
Soon after Cook’s first voyage to the South Pacific, eucalyptus was growing in Europe. In 1774, a species known as brown top was planted in the Kew Gardens, from seed donated by Captain Tobias Furneaux who was also part of Cook’s first voyage. India followed Europe closely in its botanical experimentation with eucalyptus. Tipu Sultan, the famous ruler of Mysuru, introduced eucalyptus to south India in the 1790s. Sixteen different species of the genus were either gifted to Tipu by his French allies, or sourced by him directly from Australia. The trees were planted in Tipu’s garden in Nandi Hills and some of these still survive today. Tipu was a keen horticulturalist, bringing in a number of species of economic value from different parts of the world. So his early experimentation with eucalyptus is not surprising. But soon he got involved in the Anglo–Mysore wars with the British and died in 1799, unable to take his ideas forward.
There the matter of the eucalyptus rested in India, for several decades. Meanwhile, the trees were becoming very popular in Europe and its other colonies. Botanists quickly discovered that the tree grew fast and had many uses ranging from timber, fuelwood and paper pulp to oils and honey. An added advantage was the habit it displayed of coppicing. If you cut the tree near its roots, new stems sprung up in a few months. Within a few years a fresh crop of woody trunks was ready for harvesting.
In the 1830s and 1840s, two British military officers Captain Dunn and Captain Cotton introduced another species, the Tasmanian blue gum, in the Nilgiri Hills of Tamil Nadu, to provide a source of fuelwood for the local communities. Many of these trees also persist and can be found on roadsides even today. In 1856, regular plantation of the tree was introduced in the Nilgiris and around the hill station of Ooty. By 1860, a number of experimental plantations of as many as 105 different species of eucalyptus were tried out in north Indian towns such as Agra, Dehradun, Saharanpur, Lucknow and Madhopur. Some of these trees still survive today. However, overall the plantations had mixed success. Other trees became more popular, especially the casuarina, another fast-growing Australian import that was planted across the Nandi Hills.
In the 1950s, a fungus attack devastated the casuarina plantations. Searching for a replacement, eucalyptus seeds were collected from local trees and used to raise new plantations. These seeds most likely came from a hybrid between two species of eucalyptus planted in Tipu’s times, mostly blue gum, with some influence of swamp mahogany and perhaps some mixture of river red gum as well. Over generations, this hybrid became naturalized and established itself in the local environment. Called Mysore gum, the naturalized hybrid proved to be very successful in India. It could grow well in the high mountains as well as the low plains, flourished in both cold and hot conditions, and even through drought. Tipu Sultan’s original collection of trees, imported in the 1790s, naturalized over centuries in India, have now made their way to different parts of the world, including far-flung countries such as Sudan.
Over the years, India has experimented with close to 170 species and varieties of eucalyptus. Apart from Mysore gum, only four other species have worked well enough to be grown on a large scale—Tasmanian blue gum, lemon-scented gum, rose gum and river red gum. The first two are the species used to make eucalyptus oil, while the others are preferred for paper pulp. So, if you see a eucalyptus tree in your city, it is likely to be one of these five. The most common eucalyptus tree in cities is the blue gum and the Mysore hybrid, which has now spread across most of India. These trees are quite easy to identify because of their pale, peeling barks. Children peel off the bark painting them with acrylic paints and using them as natural materials in art.
In its native country, Australia, the eucalyptus is considered an extremely useful tree, especially by the Aborigines—akin perhaps to what the mahua is to the Adivasi tribes in India. The seeds and powdered roots of some eucalyptus species are used as food by Aborigine people. Gall-inducing scale insects, which are found on many eucalyptus trees in Australia, exude a sugary liquid. They are popularly known as marina and are used by the Aborigines to make sweet drinks. Roots of certain species have the ability to store water. If you make an incision on the root, water bubbles out from the tip—a useful property in times of drought. Aboriginal craftsmen hunt for termite-infested eucalyptus trees, using their hollowed-out trunks to craft didgeridoos (trumpet-like wind instruments). Clearly, the eucalyptus is a much-valued tree that grows without controversy in Australia. But what is its story in India?
There are many reasons for planting eucalyptus in India. For one, it is a fast-growing species—it takes only four to five years for the tree to grow and provide a source of paper pulp. Also, it is an extremely hardy tree that grows well even in drought-prone areas. The essential oils produced by the leaves and stems are noxious to insects and cattle, protecting the saplings and trees from cattle and goats. Thus, many absentee landlords can safely plant eucalyptus in their fields and leave them to grow without much maintenance. The wood burns well, sometimes, too well. If the foliage is not cleared and the dry branches not trimmed and removed, especially in dry forests, fires can spread easily through these plantations during the summer. But this very property makes the wood, and even the leaves, much sought-after in villages for stoking fires in houses.
The British were enamoured with these trees. British rule in India was filled with anxieties about environment and health, especially in cities. They were focused on getting rid of miasma, or bad air, which was believed to be the cause of many diseases. Later, of course, scientific experiments proved that germs caused diseases. However, for most of the nineteenth century, the British believed that the quality of the air was the culprit for malaria, typhoid, cholera, plague and other fevers.
Vapours from marshlands were considered the unseen enemy. One of the most debilitating illnesses the British feared in tropical India was malaria, which killed their men in the hundreds. They believed that planting eucalyptus in the marshes and swamps around settlements could arrest malaria by sucking the marshlands dry. The volatile, scented vapour surrounding the trees, especially in the early mornings, was also believed to be salubrious, warding off miasmas. A letter in the Madras Mail of April 1882 says, ‘He who introduces a species of Eucalyptus, and proves it hardy in the plain of South India, will deserve to rank not far below those who brought cinchona from the antipodes.’ Cinchona is, of course, the tree from which quinine was extracted and used to treat malaria. The British considered eucalyptus as a healing tree
with similar medicinal properties, as well as economic benefits, adding both to the health and wealth of the colonial empire.
After Independence, Indian foresters established a number of forest plantations but these did not yield as expected. Government subsidies were then provided to encourage farmers to raise eucalyptus plantations to promote the pulp and paper industry. The tree became popular with many farmers who moved from labour-intensive crops like paddy and sugar cane to eucalyptus. Two species of eucalyptus, the Tasmanian blue gum and lemon-scented gum, were used to extract eucalyptus oil in local industries. The medicinal properties of the eucalyptus come from a chemical called Eucalyptol, which is extracted from this oil. The oil was much sought-after, used to prepare soaps and insecticides, and added to steaming water to treat colds. The trees were planted along forest edges as windbreaks. Swathes of eucalyptus plantation were spread across India by the 1980s.
Then the tree ran into trouble.
Environmentalists complained that eucalyptus plantations in forests had led to the creation of wildlife deserts. The tree was held responsible for depleting soil moisture. The research is not conclusive and there is no clear evidence that eucalyptus plantations are, say, worse than water-guzzling cotton or sugar cane plantations, which the eucalyptus trees have replaced in many locations. However, they have certainly impacted wildlife and biodiversity in many forests where they were planted after cutting down and destroying the original vegetation. Birds cannot eat their hard seeds and deer and other herbivores cannot tolerate their leaves. The roots and fallen leaves of many eucalyptus trees produce allelopathic chemicals that prevent undergrowth, impacting many species of insects, birds and animals.
There were also undeniable social impacts. Many food crops like rice, corn and millets produce stubble and chaff which can be used to feed cattle and other livestock. Eucalyptus plantations, with their lack of undergrowth, could not support livestock. Since these plantations did not require much maintenance, farm labour was let go. This affected many landless agricultural labourers who lost an important source of income.
The Great Eucalyptus Debate spread across the country. Writers called the eucalyptus plantations that had blanketed the countryside a green desert. Environmentalists argued that we should be planting other species like the native Indian beech, a fast-growing leguminous tree that can help increase the fertility of soils while also providing excellent wood. Mahasweta Devi, the renowned writer and activist, even called for an ‘anti-eucalyptus movement on a national scale’. A number of protests took place in villages, with many protesters uprooting eucalyptus seedlings in government plantations and replacing them with tamarind. Karnataka saw some of the most vociferous protests, resulting in a ban on eucalyptus plantations on private land in the state. It is ironical that Karnataka should ban this tree, given that it was first introduced in India in the Nandi Hills, near Bengaluru.
While much of these protests were centred around rural India’s concerns, eucalyptus has also faced opposition in cities. The British thought the eucalyptus to be an unsuitable species to plant on city and town roads, as they grow tall and are an obstacle for electricity wires. Old and tall trees were special hazards, causing a lot of damage when they fell during storms. In cities like Bengaluru, the large-scale planting of eucalyptus in the catchment areas of the nearby Arkavathy river over the years has been blamed for the river drying up.
However, eucalyptus was also promoted in many cities. While greening Bengaluru in the 1980s, eucalyptus was identified as one of the best species for creating a green belt around the city. There are towering rows of eucalyptus on either side of the road leading up to Dehradun. The tree was planted on many roadsides, again because of its ability to grow fast and establish itself in poor soils with little need for watering, maintenance or protection from cattle and goats.
Eucalyptus species are unsuited for cities in many ways, though they are found across several. Trees bearing leaves with hairy, sticky or wrinkled surfaces capture more suspended particles from the air than trees with smooth, waxy leaves like most eucalyptus species. The volatile organic compounds emitted by the trees interact with nitrogen oxides emitted by traffic, producing an even more harmful pollutant—ozone—which can cause cancer, impact lungs and lead to heart diseases.
Occasionally though, the tree finds supporters. In 2017, an attempt to fell old eucalyptus trees was met with protests by the residents of Chandigarh, who argued that the trees were a part of the city’s cultural heritage. In 2018, a plan to cut close to 3000 trees, most of which were eucalyptus, in Noida (ironically to make way for a biodiversity park), was met with protests. Local residents said that the trees were their lungs, tying rakhis to them and hugging them in a manner inspired by the iconic Chipko movement.
A common accusation against the eucalyptus is that it provides no habitat for biodiversity. But this is not entirely true. Given their impressive heights, they tower over many other trees. Cormorants found around lakes in Bengaluru build their nests on eucalyptus trees and the black kites that feed off the garbage dumps in New Delhi are found in abundance on these trees, which provide a high perch for raptors. The dried branches and lopped twigs are used as firewood by migrant workers in shanties and slums. The steam produced by the fresh leaves, dropped in boiling water, is used by the rich and poor alike in cities, helping ward off colds and allergies, and preventing a few expensive visits to the doctor. The eucalyptus has its uses and its ills.
The Great Eucalyptus Debate continues to rage on. It is a tree with character, disliked and loved in equal measure. The conundrum of the eucalyptus is a challenge that may not be resolved anytime in the near future.
Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus sp.)
Description: Diverse genus of trees. Very tall trees, with hanging leaves and generally small-sized canopies. Bark is smooth but the colour can vary. Some species shed bark in strips, exposing the lighter coloured trunk.
Flowers: Can be of different colours depending on species. Usually small and brush-like.
Fruits: Usually woody and cone-shaped.
Leaves: Usually lance-shaped with a waxy surface.
Seasonality: Evergreen, but in the tropics may shed leaves at the end of the dry season.
Family: Myrtaceae. Leaves and stems of this family have aromatic oil glands.
Origin and distribution: Native to Australia, but cultivated across India though not tolerant of very cold climates.
ELEVEN
SACRED
AND VENERABLE
‘Because there are trees, we know there are gods.’
An old Hindu priest whose shrine was located near a grove in Bengaluru said this to us. Hindus consider many species of trees to be sacred. The ancient Sanskrit text Vrukshayurveda by Surapala tells us about the worship of different trees. Planting trees was an act that earned an individual merit for the afterlife—the kind of blessing depended on the type of tree planted. One who planted banyan trees went to the abode of Shiva, while he who planted mango trees went to the abode of Garuda, for example. Surapala offers a human-centred view of tree plantation. He says that it is better to plant a single tree by the roadside, under which people can rest, rather than several trees in a forest.
Trees are worshipped in many parts of the world, not just in India. Tree worship is found across religions too. Both the Bible and the Koran talk of trees such as the date palm, fig, tamarisk and olive. The twenty-four Jain tirthankaras were associated with a sacred tree each, including many of the trees we see
in cities, such as champaka, Ashoka and peepul. Buddha is always associated with the peepul. Early representations of Buddha did not show his form—he was always represented as a tree on monuments. The Egyptians worshipped Goddess Hathor, whom they associated with the sycamore fig. The pharaohs of Egypt were buried with many items to sustain them in the afterlife. Among the things they took to their graves were dried figs, enabling them to call Hathor.
Our reverence for trees continues till this day, even in the
heart of our cities. Most obvious are the banyans, peepuls and cluster figs. Ficus species are worshipped across the Indian subcontinent, with kumkum (vermilion) and haldi (turmeric) smeared on the trunks and sacred threads and cloths tied around them. We can see pictures of gods and goddesses, and broken idols which cannot be worshipped, left between the branches or at the base of these sacred trees. The cluster fig, however, is not planted near homes, where it is considered inauspicious.
Other common trees are as sacred to us as the figs. The bilwa (bael) is beloved to Shiva, for instance, and can be found in temples dedicated to him across India. The three-lobed leaf of the bilwa is said to represent his trishul (trident). The neem is associated with the goddess of smallpox, Shitala Devi. Mango, tamarind, jamun, coconut and palms are all planted in temples, while Ashoka and peepul trees are found in Buddhist monasteries. Tamarinds and date palms are often seen in mosques and dargahs.
The bidi-leaf tree, a species of Bauhinia, is important in festival rituals, especially around Dussehra. Bauhinia gets its name from the German botanist siblings of the sixteenth century, John and Casper Bauhin. The leaves of this species of Bauhinia have a peculiar shape, with two leaves that join to form a single leaf (like a camel’s hoof) that represents the two brothers. In Maharashtra, the leaves of the bidi-leaf tree, known as apta or svet kancha are exchanged on Vijayadashami. The demand for these leaves is so high that entire trees are sometimes stripped of their leaves. In such cases, city authorities have had to issue orders protecting these trees during the festival season. The champaka, a common street tree in towns and cities in southern India, is revered by Hindus. The tree is planted in temples and its flowers are offered in worship.
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