11. Charles Loring Brace, Fourth Annual Report of the Children’s Aid Society (New York: Wynkoop, Hallenbeck & Thomas, 1857), 6.
12. Nelson, “The Best Asylum,” 222.
13. Quoted in ibid., 223.
14. Langsam, Children West, 27; Nelson, “The Best Asylum,” 212.
15. Bremner et al., Children and Youth in America, 1:673.
16. Nelson, “The Best Asylum,” 224 (emphasis in the original).
17. Ibid., 225.
18. Bremner et al., Children and Youth in America, 1:744–45.
19. Nelson, “The Best Asylum,” 224.
20. Bremner et al., Children and Youth in America, 1:743–44.
21. Brace, The Dangerous Classes, 235.
22. Ibid., 238–40 (emphasis in the original).
23. Charles Loring Brace, The Best Method of Disposing of Our Pauper and Vagrant Children (New York: Wynkoop, Hallenbeck & Thomas, 1859), 14.
24. Nelson, “The Best Asylum,” 214.
25. Brace, The Dangerous Classes, 238.
26. Brace, The Life of Charles Loring Brace, 239–40.
27. Ibid., 232, 245.
28. Ibid., 234.
29. Ibid., 237.
30. Ibid., 242.
31. Ibid., 248.
32. Ibid., 249.
33. Ibid., 244 (emphasis in the original).
34. Ibid., 245.
35. Ibid., 246.
36. Ibid., 265.
37. Ibid., 255.
38. Charles Loring Brace, A Statement to the Public of a Portion of the Work of the Children’s Aid Society (publisher unknown [probably Wynkoop & Hallenbeck], 1863), 1, 2.
39. Jackson, The Encyclopedia of New York City, 191–92.
40. The Irish World (New York), May 9, 1874, 1.
41. Nelson, “The Best Asylum,” 350.
42. Brace, The Dangerous Classes, 199.
43. Levi Silliman Ives, New York Catholic Protectory, First Annual Report, 1864, quoted in Bremner et al., Children and Youth in America, 1:748.
44. Quoted in Bremner et al., Children and Youth in America, 1:748.
45. Ives discontinued the protectory’s outplacement program after experimenting with it for a year, but it was reinstated after his death.
46. Ashby, Endangered Children, 50.
47. Annette R. Fry, The Orphan Trains (New York: Macmillan, 1994), 37.
48. Brace, The Dangerous Classes, 408.
49. Young and Marks, Tears on Paper, 257–59, 345–46; Fry, The Orphan Trains, 89–92.
50. Fry, The Orphan Trains, 44.
51. Author interview, Springdale, Ark., October 3, 1997.
52. Holt, The Orphan Trains, 137.
53. Brace, The Dangerous Classes, 435–37.
54. Ibid., 439; Langsam, Children West, 17.
8. Almost a Miracle
1. Brace, The Dangerous Classes, 261.
2. Ibid., 262.
3. CAS, Fiftieth Annual Report, vii.
4. Quoted in Hinckley, Alaskan John G. Brady.
5. Ibid., 355, 370.
6. Brace, The Dangerous Classes, 262.
7. Fry, The Orphan Trains, 64.
8. Children’s Aid Society, “Record Book,” vol. 7, 36.
9. Ibid., 36.
10. Hinckley, Alaskan John G. Brady, 14.
11. Ibid., 14.
12. Ibid., 11.
13. Ibid., 15.
14. Brace, The Dangerous Classes, 263.
15. Hinckley, Alaskan John G. Brady, 29–30.
16. Ibid., 35.
17. Ibid., 37.
18. Ibid., 60.
19. Ibid., 67.
20. Ibid., 240.
21. N. Scott Mommaday, “The American West and the Burden of Belief,” in The West: An Illustrated History by Geoffrey C. Ward (Boston: Little, Brown, 1996), 381.
22. Hinckley, Alaskan John G. Brady, 119–20.
23. Ibid., 120.
24. Ibid., 165.
25. Ibid., 172.
26. Ibid., 192.
27. Ibid., 195.
28. Ibid., 276.
29. Children’s Aid Society, “Record Book,” vol. 7, 35.
30. The National Cyclopedia of American Biography (New York: James T. White & Co., 1898), 1:320.
31. Robert Sobel and John Raimo, eds., Biographical Directory of Governors of the United States, 1789–1978 (Westport, Conn.: Meckler Books, 1978), 3:1171–72.
32. Ibid.
33. Hinckley, Alaskan John G. Brady, 211.
34. Ibid., 212.
35. Ibid., 224.
36. Ibid., 278, 282–83.
37. Ibid., 184.
38. Ibid., 362.
39. Charles Loring Brace, 2nd, The Children’s Aid Society of New York in Its Seventieth Year (publisher unknown, 1923), 10.
40. Children’s Aid Society, Sixty-fifth Annual Report (New York, 1917), 12–13.
41. Ibid., 13. The Sixty-fifth Annual Report actually lists 113, 503 Emigration Plan placements. But because this list includes some adults and many children who were entered as new cases two or three times, a conservative estimate seems more realistic.
42. Brace, Best Method, 16; Brace, The Dangerous Classes; The Children’s Aid Society of New York: Its Emigration or Placing–Out System and Its Results (New York, 1910), 11.
Part III: Redoing
1. Brace, First Annual Report, 27–29.
9. Invisible Children
1. Brace, The Life of Charles Loring Brace, 257.
2. Charles L. Brace, The Races of the Old World: A Manual of Ethnology (New York: Charles Scribner, 1863), 494–95.
3. Ibid., 462–63.
4. Ibid., 467.
5. Ibid., 441.
6. Bellingham, ‘“The Little Wanderers,”’ 246.
7. Brace, Sixth Annual Report, 37.
8. Charles Loring Brace, letter to Colonel J. Howland, April 2, 1863, CAS Archive.
9. Brace, Fourth Annual Report, 57.
10. Charles Loring Brace, Second Annual Report of the Children’s Aid Society (New York: M. B. Wynkoop, 1855), 27.
11. Brace, The Dangerous Classes, 214.
12. Charles Loring Brace, Sixteenth Annual Report of the Children’s Aid Society, New York: Wynkoop & Hallenbeck, 1869, 33.
13. Charles Loring Brace, Fifteenth Annual Report of the Children’s Aid Society (New York: Wynkoop & Hallenbeck, 1868), 46.
14. Brace 2nd, The Children’s Aid Society of New York, 10.
15. Brace, The Life of Charles Loring Brace, 364–65. In this same letter, Brace mentioned that, twenty–nine years after her death, he still missed his sister Emma so deeply that he could not bear to read her letters and thought of her constantly.
16. Holt, The Orphan Trains, 64.
17. Thurston, The Dependent Child, 133.
18. Brace, The Dangerous Classes, 106, 303.
19. Ibid., 115.
20. Brace, first CAS publicity circular, 2.
21. Charles Loring Brace, Thirteenth Annual Report of the Children’s Aid Society (New York: Wynkoop & Hallenbeck, 1866), 13.
22. Charles Loring Brace, Twenty–fifth Annual Report of the Children’s Aid Society (New York: Wynkoop & Hallenbeck, 1879), 20–21.
23. Brace, Thirteenth Annual Report, 13–14.
24. Brace, Eleventh Annual Report, 12.
25. Brace, The Dangerous Classes, 115.
26. Ibid., 115.
27. Brace, Thirteenth Annual Report, 13.
28. Charles Loring Brace, Twelfth Annual Report of the Children’s Aid Society (New York: Wynkoop & Hallenbeck, 1865), 16.
29. Brace, The Dangerous Classes, 115.
30. Stansell, City of Women, 181; Timothy J. Gilfoyle, City of Eros: New York City, Prostitution, and the Commercialization of Sex (New York: Norton, 1992), 69.
31. Sanger, The History of Prostitution, 455.
32. Ibid., 481.
33. Ibid., 488.
34. Brace, Twelfth Annual Report, 14.
35. Ibid., 14.
36. Brace, Twenty–fifth Ann
ual Report, 21.
37. Brace, Eleventh Annual Report, 12.
38. Ibid., 15.
39. Brace, Twenty–fifth Annual Report, 24.
40. Bellingham, “Little Wanderers,’” 329.
41. Sanger, The History of Prostitution. 178.
42. Marguerite Thomson, interview with the author, Springdale, Ark., October 2, 1997
43. Alice Bullis Ayler, interview with the author, Springdale, Ark., October 3, 1997.
44. Brace, The Dangerous Classes, 116.
45. Mary Warner Blanchard, Oscar Wilde’s America: Counterculture in the Gilded Age (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), 13.
46. Ibid., 15, 17.
47. Carl Bode, “Introduction” to Ragged Dick and Struggling Upward by Horatio Alger (New York: Penguin, 1986), xvii.
48. Ibid., xiv (emphasis in the original).
10. Neglect of the Poor
1. Brace, The Life of Charles Loring Brace, 267.
2. Ibid., 215.
3. Ibid., 279.
4. Ibid., 283–84.
5. Quoted in Ashby, Endangered Children, 64.
6. Langsam, Children West, 27.
7. Brace, The Life of Charles Loring Brace, 330.
8. New York Times, February 8 and 15, 1871; New York Tribune and New York Evening Post, February 15, 1871.
9. Langsam, Children West, 22.
10. Brace, The Life of Charles Loring Brace, 335–36.
11. Ibid., 338.
12. Brace, quoted in Nelson, “The Best Asylum,” 214.
13. Langsam, Children West, 56.
14. Ibid., 56–57.
15. History of Johnson County, Iowa (Iowa City: n.p., 1883), 423.
16. Holt, The Orphan Trains, 100–101.
17. Langsam, Children West, 57.
18. Ibid., 57–58.
19. Nelson, “The Best Asylum,” 233.
20. New York Times, April 10, 1874, quoted in Bremner et al., Children and Youth in America, 2:186.
21. New York Times, April 22, 1874, quoted in Bremner et al., Children and Youth in America, 2:189.
22. Ashby, Endangered Children, 62.
23. Zelizer, Pricing the Priceless Child, 176.
24. Bremner et al., Children and Youth in America, 2:291–92.
25. Nelson, “The Best Asylum,” 236–37; Langsam, Children West, 58–59.
26. Nelson, “The Best Asylum,” 236.
27. Quoted in Langsam, Children West, 60.
28. Brace, The Life of Charles Loring Brace, 362.
29. Ibid., 403.
30. Quoted in Bremner et al., Children and Youth in America, 2:307.
31. All quotes from Hastings H. Hart study ibid., 2:305–9.
32. Charles Loring Brace, Thirty–second Annual Report of the Children’s Aid Society (New York: Wynkoop & Hallenbeck, 1885).
33. Quoted in Holt, The Orphan Trains, 58–59.
34. From Harry Morris, “My Life Story by Harry Morris (Shorty),” collected in Young and Marks, Tears on Paper, 205–12.
35. Quoted in Holt, The Orphan Trains, 149.
36. Nelson, “The Best Asylum,” 244.
11. The Trials of Charley Miller
1. Except where otherwise noted, all information in this chapter comes from the transcript of Charley Miller’s trial, December 8–11, 1890, in Cheyenne, Wyoming, and reports in the Cheyenne Daily Leader, September 23, 1890, to April 23, 1892.
2. Children’s Aid Society, “Record Book,” vol. 27, 90.
3. Amos Barber’s correspondence provided by the Wyoming State Archives, Department of Commerce.
4. T. A. Larson, History of Wyoming (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1965), 230.
12. The Death and Life of Charles Loring Brace
1. Brace, The Life of Charles Loring Brace, 279–80.
2. Ibid., 430.
3. Ibid., 449–50.
4. Ibid., 462.
5. Ibid., 463–64.
6. Ibid., 470.
7. Ibid., 478.
8. Walter I. Trattner, Homer Folks: Pioneer in Social Welfare (New York: Columbia University Press, 1968), 24.
9. Quoted in Zelizer, Pricing the Priceless Child, 186.
10. Bremner et al., Children and Youth in America, 2:324.
11. Ibid.
12. Quoted in Trattner, Homer Folks, 27.
13. Ibid., 48.
14. Quoted in Walter I. Trattner, From Poor Law to Welfare State (New York: Free Press, 1989), 118.
15. Ibid., 120.
16. Quoted in Michael Shapiro, Solomon’s Sword (New York: Times Books, 1999), 153.
17. The original Hull House building is now a museum, and the social work of the institution is carried out by the Hull House Association, an affiliation of social service agencies. Only the director of the Henry Street Settlement is required to live at the settlement house itself.
18. Trattner, Homer Folks, 104.
19. Quoted in Bremner et al., Children and Youth in America, 2:365.
20. Ibid., 2:366–67.
21. Katz, In the Shadow of the Poorhouse, 126–27.
22. Trattner, Homer Folks, 115.
23. Ashby, Endangered Children, 96–97.
24. Children’s Aid Society, “Argument upon Senator Brown’s Bill Entitled an Act to Regulate the Placing–Out of Children,” 1897, 5 (CAS Archives).
25. CAS, Fiftieth Annual Report, 21.
26. Ibid., 24.
27. Ibid., 25.
28. Zelizer, Pricing the Priceless Child, 14.
29. Langsam, Children West, 27.
30. CAS, Fiftieth Annual Report, 15.
31. CAS Archives
Conclusion: Legacy
1. Brace, Fourth Annual Report.
2. Center for New York City Law, New York University, City Law 4, no. 5 (September–October 1998): 97, 98–104.
3. Ann McCabe, CAS director of foster care and adoption services, interview with the author, New York City, October 26, 1998; and Administration for Children’s Services (ACS) Public Affairs Office.
4. Children’s Aid Society, 1998 Annual Report, inside front cover statement.
5. Michael R. Petit, et al., Child Abuse and Neglect: A Look at the States, 1999 CWLA Stat Book (Washington, D.C.: CWLA Press, 1999), 72.
6. Ibid., 95.
7. Rachel L. Swarns, “Three Years After a Girl’s Murder, Five Siblings Lack Stable Homes,” New York Times, August 4, 1998.
8. “Marisol v. Giuliani, Case Record Review: Services to Families with Open Indicated Cases,” prepared by Marisol Joint Case Review Team, September 5, 1997, 6.
9. Ibid., 23.
10. Ibid., 3.
11. Petit et al., Child Abuse and Neglect, 225, 53, 136–37.
12. “Under Attack, Foster Agencies Link Lapses to Budget Cuts,” New York Times, February 26, 1998.
13. Marcia Robinson Lowry, interview with the author, New York City, October 6, 1998.
14. Special Child Welfare Advisory Panel (SCWAP) (New York City), Advisory Report on Front Line and Supervisory Practice, March 9, 2000, 55.
15. New York City Department of Sanitation Press Office, October 6, 2000.
16. ACS web page (career opportunities), July 27, 1999.
17. SCWAP, Advisory Report, 56.
18. Name withheld for privacy, interview with the author, New York City, January 22, 1999.
19. SCWAP, Advisory Report, 46.
20. Marisol v. Giuliani, 2:47, 48; 3:51.
21. Ibid., 3:5.
22. New York State Social Services Department, “1983 Annual Report, Statistical Supplement.”
23. ACS public affairs office.
24. A portion of that rise, perhaps as much as 25 percent, may have been due to the decision in 1988 to begin counting children placed with family members as part of the foster care population.
25. Nina Bernstein, “City and State Pay $49 Million to Settle Foster Care Fraud Lawsuit,” New York Times, November 11, 1998.
26. Bob Herbert, “An Unending Tragedy,” New York Times, Feb
ruary 26, 1998.
27. Swarns, “Three Years After a Girl’s Murder, Five Siblings Lack Stable Homes”; Dale Russakoff, “The Protector,” The New Yorker, April 21, 1997, 61.
28. Rachel L. Swarns, “Foster Agencies Called Lax, and Faulted in a Girl’s Death,” New York Times, January 21, 1999.
29. Michael Wagner, interview with the author, New York City, November 18, 1998.
30. Russakoff, “The Protector,” 62.
31. SCWAP, Advisory Report, 12.
32. ACS Press Office, September 18, 2000.
33. SCWAP, Advisory Report, 12.
34. Carolyn Harlow, U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics (USBOJS) Office of Justice Programs.
35. Jim Stephan, USBOJS Office of Justice Programs.
36. Sue Lindgren, USBOJS Office of Justice Programs.
Bibliography
Children’s Aid Society Archives
Brace, Charles Loring. 1853. “Daily Journal.” Typed manuscript.
Brace, Charles Loring. N.d. (cover and title page missing). Short Sermons to News Boys.
Company Books. 1854–1909. Vols. 1–4. Handwritten register.
Desmond, William Colopy. 1857–59. Sketches and Incidents in the Office of the Children’s Aid Society. Handwritten journal.
Macy, John, and C. C. Tracy. 1855–57. Incidents and Sketches Among the Newsboys. Handwritten journal.
Record Books. 1854–1916. Vols. 2–57. Handwritten registers and journals.
Books and Pamphlets
Ashby, LeRoy. 1997. Endangered Children: Dependency, Neglect, and Abuse in American History. New York: Twayne Publishers.
Ashton, T. S. 1969. The Industrial Revolution, 1760–1830. London: Oxford University Press.
Bellingham, Bruce. 1984. “’Little Wanderers’: A Socio–historical Study of the Nineteenth–Century Origins of Child Fostering and Adoption Reform, Based on Early Records of the New York Children’s Aid Society.” Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania.
Bender, Thomas. 1987. New York Intellect. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
——. 1975. Toward an Urban Vision. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
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