Hazrat Inayat Khan and his American wife Amina Sharada Begum (formerly Ora Ray Baker) welcomed their first child into the world on 1 January 1914. They were living in Moscow when their daughter Noor, which means ‘light of womanhood’, was born. Khan and his wife had initially travelled to Russia when his musical group, The Royal Musicians of Hindustan, were invited to perform in a Moscow nightclub, and the group became very popular among Moscow’s cultural elite. The Khans felt very much at home in Moscow and decided to extend their stay, purchasing a large home not far from the Kremlin. However, Russia was not a stable country in 1914; it was beset with civil unrest and harsh government repression of any individual or groups advocating a freer and more equal society. As the situation in Russia became more uncertain and with the outbreak of the First World War looming, the Khans decided to accept an invitation for their musical group to play an engagement in Paris, where they gave a series of concerts. When war broke out and Germany mobilised against France, the Khans decided to move to Britain with their six-month-old daughter. They stayed for several years, and it was here that Khan formed the Sufi Order. Sufism is a form of Islam, and Hazrat Khan developed an extensive following for his preaching of love, tolerance and pacifism; he published many books on the subject.
Three more children followed Noor – her brothers Hidayat and Vilayat, and sister Khair (later known as Claire) – before the family eventually moved on to France where they settled in Suresnes just outside of Paris. Noor’s father was the spiritual leader of the Sufi religious community and his followers supported the Khan family well, allowing them to live a privileged lifestyle. Hazrat Khan travelled to India in the summer of 1926 where he continued his preaching. Sadly, he developed pneumonia during his time there, and died in February 1927 without ever seeing his family again. Noor, her mother and her siblings continued to live in France, still reasonably well supported by Hazrat Khan’s followers. At seventeen, Noor enrolled in the École Normale de Musique in Paris where she studied both the piano and harp. She also studied several languages, including French, German and Spanish, and earned a degree in child psychology from the Sorbonne. Upon graduation, Noor embarked on a career as a freelance writer, earning critical acclaim for her children’s fairy tales. Khan was not without romance in her life, either. Before his death, Hazrat Khan had planned for Khan to marry an Indian boy, whom Khan met in 1928 and genuinely liked. This marriage was called off a year later, when Khan was fifteen, but she met a young Jewish man during her time at the École Normale de Musique and they eventually became engaged. Her family did not approve of this relationship, but despite their disapproval the pair were engaged for several years. Khan finally called off the engagement just after the Germans attacked France, stating that she ‘wanted to be free to go into action or serve as a nurse on the front line if the need arose’.1
By 1939, the political situation in Europe had reached its breaking point. Khan was troubled by the violence of the Nazi regime, and Germany’s aggression towards its smaller neighbours violated all of her religious principles of peace, tolerance and love. Although she abhorred violence of any kind, Khan was committed to helping stop the Nazi threat and enrolled in a Red Cross nursing course so that she would be able to assist her adopted country in their war effort, should France be attacked. The Germans marched into France in May 1940. The speed of the German advance shocked the British and French troops, and soon had them reeling backwards in retreat towards the English Channel. The German army swept down from the north through Holland and Belgium while launching an armoured assault from the east through the Ardennes Forest in France. In less than a month, the Germans had forced the Allied armies back to the French coast, from where most of the British and some of the French were evacuated back to England. By 10 June, the Germans were approaching the outskirts of Paris, but Khan and her sister continued their work in the hospital where they were stationed until it was completely evacuated. Khan and her sister then fled south in an attempt to reconnect with their hospital unit. Unable to locate their unit, the pair approached the British consul, who directed them to the port of Saint-Nazaire to join the British Red Cross hospital ship. By the time Khan and her sister reached Saint-Nazaire, however, the hospital ship had sailed. Realising that France was about to fall, Khan and her family made plans to escape to Britain. Since her brother Vilayat had been born in Britain, he managed to secure the family a spot on one of the last boats that had been made available to evacuate British subjects from France.
Khan and her family may have escaped the conquering Germans, but life in Britain presented many challenges. The family settled in Oxford, but in August 1940 the Battle of Britain began, and the Germans seemed closer than ever. Night after night, German bombs rained down on London and its surrounding areas, terrorising civilians. The Khans were also experiencing financial problems. With Germany in control of most of Europe, the Khan family was effectively cut off from the financial support of Hazrat Khan’s followers on the Continent. Anxious to continue to be involved in the war effort, and to secure a regular pay cheque for her family, Khan enlisted in the Women’s Auxiliary Air Force (WAAF) in November 1940, and was posted to Harrogate as an Aircraftwoman, Second Class. She used the name Nora, as it sounded close to Noor, and listed her religion as Church of England. Her civil occupation was listed as ‘writer’ and she included ‘Fluent French’ as one of her other qualifications. Khan was selected for basic training in signals (use of a wireless) and her reports were impressive. Over the next two years Khan was posted to a number of different positions. Much of her time was spent working with various Balloon Barrage groups. Early in 1940 the Royal Air Force (RAF), in an attempt to free up men for active duty elsewhere, had begun using WAAF officers to operate the balloons that floated above British cities and ports. These balloons were used as a defensive measure against German air attack, and were designed to frustrate dive-bombers and to force the German bombers to fly higher so that their bombing was less accurate. Khan was also posted to a bomber command unit where she worked as a radio operator, maintaining communications with British bomber pilots. She rose steadily through the WAAF ranks, and in June 1942 was selected for a more specialised course in signals training. Khan also continued to write during this time, and her fairy tales were often broadcast during the Children’s Hour on the BBC.
Khan’s fluency in numerous languages, namely French, Spanish and German, had not escaped the attention of her superiors. In October 1942, she received a summons from the War Office to report for an interview with a Captain Selwyn Jepson, who, unbeknown to Khan, was the senior recruiting officer for the Special Operations Executive (SOE). On 10 November 1942, Khan met with Jepson at the Hotel Victoria. Jepson explained to Khan about the need for wireless operators in France and how important it was for the British government to be in contact with the French Resistance. Communications with operatives in France provided the Allies with information about German troop movements and locations of possible bombing targets, and facilitated the rescue of downed Allied airmen. Jepson was also very clear in telling Khan exactly what the consequences of being captured by the Germans entailed. Imprisonment, torture and execution were all to be expected should an agent fall into enemy hands. Khan had misgivings. She indicated that, while working as a wireless operator was exactly the type of assignment she would be willing to take on, she feared her mother would be devastated if she left for overseas work. However, after mulling it over for several days and speaking with her mother, Khan sent a letter to Captain Jepson. It explained that any reservations Khan may have had about leaving her mother had been resolved, and that she realised ‘how petty our family ties are when something in the way of winning this war is at stake’.2 Before accepting Khan for training, Jepson, as with all candidates, asked her where her loyalties lay. Khan was her usual truthful self, stating that her first loyalty was to India, and if she had to choose between Britain or India, then India would win out. Slightly taken aback, Jepson countered by explaining that, at th
e moment, Khan merely had to choose what she felt about the Germans. Khan declared she loathed the Germans and wanted to see them lose the war. Jepson immediately accepted her as an SOE candidate, and she was sent home to Abingdon to await orders.
Early in February of 1943, Khan was sent to Wanborough Manor to begin her SOE training. Wanborough was a beautiful estate in Surrey and was the first school that ‘F’ Section agents would attend during the course of their training. Many SOE candidates were weeded out during this time but Khan successfully completed the four-week course, which consisted of basic military and physical training. It was at Wanborough that Khan met fellow agents Yolande Beekman and Cecily Lefort, two women who would ultimately share her tragic fate. Khan’s instructors noted that she was rather clumsy, which hampered her performance in such areas as physical training, fieldcraft, and explosives and demolitions, but she performed very well in signalling, having already completed two courses of signals training. Her instructor’s remarks read, ‘Lacked confidence to begin with but has come on very well and shows considerable promise. Active, plenty of spirit, and could be relied upon to come up to scratch when the occasion arose.’3
From Wanborough, Khan moved on to Thame Park, where she received more intensive training in coding and ciphering. She understood coding theory very well, and received satisfactory reports on her accuracy and efficiency in sending and receiving transmissions. Khan laboured for hours each day, increasing her Morse speed and learning how to diagnose and repair problems with a wireless set, as well as how to hide the set and set up aerials. Having already had a good deal of radio-transmission training she was ahead of all of the other trainees. She also developed a deeper understanding of exactly how dangerous it would be to be sent on a mission as a wireless operator. The radio set was very heavy and would have to be carried from place to place in order to vary transmission sites. It could be taken apart but each section looked distinctly like a piece of radio equipment, so even disassembled it would be difficult to explain the possession of such a piece to the Germans. The sets also produced a very weak signal and required a huge antenna (about 21 m), which was not only troublesome to erect but also difficult to hide. Operators were made very aware that German radio detection equipment was superior to the British technology. In practice the candidate agents had about an hour to elude the British radio locators; however, in Occupied France they would have about half that amount of time. It is interesting that there were two stages of training that Khan was not required to complete. Unlike most other agents, she received no parachute training, as her instructors had declared her unsuitable for jumping (although no specific reason was given). There is also no evidence that Khan ever completed training at Arisaig (where agents were trained in the art of guerilla warfare tactics). This would have been a typical progression for most agents after their Wanborough stint, but it would be reasonable to assume that SOE was more interested in having Khan refine her wireless-operation skills than in teaching her how to blow things up.
Khan did not fare as well at the next level of her training. At Beaulieu she was to complete her security course. Agents were taught various types of clandestine techniques and security measures. Skills such as spotting someone following you, knowing when to change your address and altering your personality were drilled into prospective agents. Khan’s dreamy and truthful nature made her thoughtless about security, and she had extreme difficulty concealing her real personality. One of her instructors, Lieutenant Holland, reported that Khan had indicated ‘she would not like to do anything two-faced … deliberately cultivating friendly relations with malice aforethought’.4 Instructors were concerned about her shattered reaction to the mock German interrogation they put her through. Her escorting officer, Joan Sanderson, found Khan’s reaction to her mock interrogation
almost unbearable. She seemed absolutely terrified. One saw that the lights hurt her, and the officer’s voice when he shouted very loudly. Once he said, ‘Stand on that chair!’ It was just something to confuse her. She was so overwhelmed, nearly lost her voice. As it went on she became practically inaudible. Sometimes there was only a whisper. When she came out afterwards, she was trembling and quite blanched.5
Even fellow agents questioned her suitability for field work, wondering whether this daydreamer, who was heavily immersed in astrology and palm-reading, had the temperament to fulfill such a high-pressure role as an undercover operative. Yvonne Cormeau, an SOE agent who trained with Khan and survived the war, stated that Khan was a ‘splendid, dreamy creature, far too conspicuous – twice seen, never forgotten who had no sense of security and should never have been sent into France’.6 Two other female agents approached Vera Atkins, assistant to Maurice Buckmaster (head of ‘F’ Section), with their own concerns about Khan’s suitability. Atkins met with Khan to convey the concerns that had been expressed, and gave Khan the opportunity to leave SOE. Khan was hurt by her colleagues’ doubts, and refused Atkins’ offer.7
One of Khan’s final security training exercises was a ninety-six-hour scheme; she was sent to Bristol in order to establish a fake identity, recruit people to work with, set up message drops and find a safe place from which to send radio transmissions. SOE instructors observed her at all times to determine her security consciousness. Khan performed well for most of the scheme with the exception of the interrogation. Her instructor reported that Khan had been quite diligent and had ‘shown interest in the exercise, but however, must learn to be more discreet. Apart from the police interrogation, I consider this quite a good scheme.’8 Khan’s personnel file is littered with reports that cast doubts upon her suitability for clandestine work. Her final report, written by Colonel Frank Spooner on 21 May 1943, was perhaps the bluntest, stating, ‘Not overburdened with brains but has worked hard and shown keenness, apart from some dislike of the security side of the course. She has an unstable and temperamental personality and it is very doubtful whether she is really suited to work in the field.’9
Maurice Buckmaster chose to disregard Spooner’s concerns, and his notes such as ‘Nonsense’ and ‘Makes me cross’ can be found scribbled in the margins of Spooner’s final report on Khan. It was not unusual for Buckmaster to overrule his instructors’ opinions regarding agent suitability, as he did the same with agents Violette Szabo and Odette Sansom. In fact, in his book, Specially Employed, he explained some of the reasons for an agent being sent into the field despite having less than stellar training reports. He stated, ‘It was necessary, for overriding reasons of shortage of specialists – particularly wireless operators – to stretch a point in favour of the candidate.’10 It was an undeniable fact that, in the summer of 1943, wireless operators were desperately needed in Occupied France. Message traffic from the Paris area was overwhelming and, although she had not yet completed her security training, Khan was SOE’s best-prepared wireless operator. A note in her file reveals, ‘This student was withdrawn … at the request of her Country Section. While she cannot be considered a fully trained operator … she is quite capable of handling her set and of passing messages.’11 The decision had been made to send her into France.
Khan was given the operational code name Madeleine and the cover name of Jeanne Marie Renier. Much of her cover story was drawn from her own life, and on 16 June 1943 Vera Atkins escorted Khan to Tangmere, a cottage in Sussex that was next to an RAF station. There Khan met up with fellow agents Diana Rowden and Cecily Lefort, who were also departing for France that evening. The group enjoyed a farewell dinner together, and, as they prepared to leave, Khan commented on the beautiful silver bird pin that was affixed to Vera Atkins’ lapel. Atkins immediately pinned the bird to Khan’s suit, declaring, ‘It’s a little bird, it will bring you luck.’12 As darkness fell, Khan and Lefort boarded their Lysander, while Rowden boarded another for their journey into Occupied France. Rowden and Lefort were to act as couriers for Resistance networks while Khan had the distinction of being the first female wireless operator stationed in France. After landing, the three
women separated and Khan travelled to Paris where she met up with an agent named Cinema (Emile Henri Garry) for whom she was to transmit. Cinema worked for the PROSPER network, run by Francis Suttill, which was probably the most important SOE network operating in France at the time. The PROSPER circuit was centred around Paris, and was responsible for a substantial number of arms and explosives that were brought in from Britain and passed on to French Resistance groups. PROSPER coordinated acts of local sabotage which disrupted German lines of communication, and was also arming the French Resistance so that they would be able to join the fight when the Allies invaded the Continent. Cinema introduced Khan to the PROSPER team, which included Suttill, wireless operator Gilbert Norman, and courier Andrée Borrel. They had no idea how little time they would have to work together.
Khan’s lack of security awareness became obvious immediately. The day after her arrival in Paris, Khan was taken to PROSPER’s working headquarters, which was located at an agricultural school at Grignon, just north-west of Versailles. Members of PROSPER were shocked when Khan casually left the briefcase containing all of her codes on the front table in the entrance hall of the school. She was also reprimanded for pouring milk into her teacup, before adding the tea. This distinctly English mannerism would easily catch the attention of any sharp-eyed German. However, PROSPER agents soon had bigger things to worry about than their new wireless operator’s absent-mindedness. The circuit had been betrayed by a double agent, and large-scale arrests were decimating the network’s numbers. Francis Suttill, Gilbert Norman and Andrée Borrel were all arrested just a week after Khan arrived in France, and the PROSPER network began to disintegrate. Wave after wave of arrests took place, the group’s headquarters at Grignon was raided and Khan herself reported back to London that all of PROSPER’s leaders and equipment had been captured. SOE immediately ordered Khan back to Britain. She refused, claiming that, as one of the few wireless operators still in operation, SOE could little afford to lose her transmissions. Khan began life on the run, travelling from place to place around Paris and its outskirts, trying to find safe areas from which to transmit. By the end of June, Khan’s radio was the only one that ‘F’ Section had in the Paris region that was still operational.
Women who Spied for Britain Page 6