and cannabinoid receptors 187–8
and cortisol 224
after dieting 83
drive 80, 171
genes encoding for 59
hormones x, 20, 80–84, 80, 82, 89, 103, 104, 216, 253, 263 see also leptin
and leptin 26, 84–8, 89, 92–5, 99, 99, 100
of newly-married couples 225
regulation 26, 29, 79–90, 80, 82, 86, 171 see also weight set-point theory
and sleep deficiency 253
of students 224
and weight gain 25, 28, 29, 52, 55, 86, 87, 89, 100, 106, 171, 188, 192, 216, 224, 225, 253 see also weight set-point theory
atherosclerosis 141, 146, 147, 153
Atkins diet 220
Austria, processed food 229
autoimmune diseases 186
autonomic nervous system (ANS) 70, 73
avocado 250, 251
oil 176
bacteria 96, 114
gut 120, 230–31
primordial 112, 113, 135
probiotics 231
bariatric surgery xi–xii, 89, 102–7, 158
and appetite 79–80
expectations 236–7
gastric band xi, 103–4
gastric bypass xi–xii, 56, 104–5, 105
intra-gastric balloon 103–4
sleeve gastrectomy xi, 25, 104–5, 105
basal metabolic rate (BMR) 7, 8, 16–18, 20, 68n, 69, 75, 77
Harris-Benedict formula 67–9
and metabolic adaptation 18–19, 22–3, 23, 26–30, 29, 69–70, 77, 203, 273
and Minnesota Starvation Experiment 21–2, 24
and weight loss after The Biggest Loser 64, 65
Batterham, Rachel x
Bays, Jan Chozen 244
bear, brown 28, 191–2
Bedouins 50, 54–5
beer 133, 204
beer belly 206–7
beriberi 163–8
Berry, Halle 220
Biafran War famine 52
Biggest Loser 63–4, 65
binge-eating 92, 93, 241
blood pressure 38, 52, 73, 155
blood sugar 6, 72, 73, 75, 80, 80, 193, 199–200
and alcohol 207
and the brain 6, 199, 201
and carbohydrates 75, 200–201
coping with fluctuations between meals 202–3, 278 see also snacking/snacks
hormone controlling see insulin
and hyper-insulinaemic clamp 197
in pregnancy 55–6
and reducing glycaemic load 269–70
roller coaster 201–4, 202, 208
and sleep deficiency 253
blue zones of longevity 255–6, 255
Body Mass Index (BMI) 37–8
body temperature control 9–10
Bolt, Usain 268
bone marrow 125–6
brain
cannabinoid receptors 187–8
cephalization 115–20
and dopamine 188, 240–41
and ‘energy-in’ signals 79
and energy budget 114–16
energy storage necessity calculated by see weight set-point theory
and essential fatty acids 188–9
and expensive tissue hypothesis 115–16
fat–brain signalling pathway 81, 84–8
fat content of brain tissue 125–6, 175, 177 see also cholesterol
and glucose 6, 199, 201
gut–brain signalling pathway 81–3
gut size vs brain size 117–20, 117, 120
hypothalamus see hypothalamus
and leptin 84–5, 87, 89, 93–4, 99, 100
mass 115–20, 117, 120
as offal 125–6, 133
pituitary gland 25
preparing for famine 27–9, 66, 68, 106, 228 see also weight set-point theory
subconscious power of 27–8, 29, 64–5, 66, 69, 71, 77, 79, 107, 217
bread 95n, 134–5, 219, 222, 231–2, 249, 251, 268
glycaemic load 269, 290
breakfast 17, 82, 91–2, 201, 202, 211, 250–51
continental 251
full English 202, 250–51
breathing, mindful 246–7
British Medical Journal 180–81
British Navy, and scurvy 168–70
Buettner, Dan 255–6
butter 31n, 153, 172, 173, 176, 179, 180, 259, 288
calories 12–15, 13, 14, 17, 20
in alcohol 204
burning excess 17–19, 73, 264
daily consumption by average American 174
low-calorie dieting 19–24, 23, 65–7, 83–4, 86, 215–16, 219
and Minnesota Starvation Experiment 21–2, 24
in processed foods 154, 229
proportion of intake from processed foods in various countries 229
restriction and energy expenditure 21, 22–3, 23
restriction and weight loss 19–23, 23
Cambridge Weight Plan 219
Cameron, Robert: The Drinking Man’s Diet 204–5
cancer 38, 155, 158–9, 160, 186, 204
cannabinoids 187–8, 201, 260
cannabis 187–8
canola oil 151, 172, 180, 259, 289
carbohydrates 7, 17, 126, 147
and glucose 75, 200–201
low-carb dieting 220–21, 267–71
and McGovern Report 148
in Palaeolithic diet 123, 124, 126
refined 100, 133, 173–4, 180, 202, 208, 212, 213, 219, 222, 278
carbon chains 175–7, 176, 177
Caribbean sugar 131–2, 133
cashews 261, 291
cattle 31–6, 60–61, 182
caveman-style diet 123–7, 127
cell walls 175, 177, 256, 257
and essential fatty acids 184–6, 187, 194–5, 256
permeability 187
and saturated fat cholesterol 177
seasonal change 191
cephalization 115–20
cereal grains 136, 156, 157, 173–4, 174, 180, 182, 201, 219, 250, 278
fed to cattle 32, 34, 35, 182
glycaemic load 291
see also corn; maize; wheat
cheese 176, 212, 250, 269, 278, 288
chimpanzees 114–15, 119, 120
chipmunk 192
chloroplasts 178, 258
chocolate 242, 243–4, 250
snacks 203
cholesterol 38, 125, 133, 141, 146–7, 148, 149, 159, 160, 175, 177, 250n, 277–83
and ‘diet–heart’ hypothesis 141–50, 160, 171, 181, 277–81, 282, 283
HDL 146, 153, 266, 279, 280, 281
LDL 147, 153, 279–80, 281–2, 283
omega-6 and reduction of 180
processed food changes after governmental low-cholesterol advice 150–53, 159–61, 172–4, 179–82, 202–3, 208–9, 278
and statins 150, 282, 283
total 279, 281, 282, 283
and trans-fats 153
and vegetable oils 152, 153, 172
coconut
dried 250
oil 175
cod liver oil 179, 180, 289
cooking 237–8
effect on brain and gut size 118–19, 120
and evolution of Homo sapiens 118–20, 120
fire for 118, 120, 124, 125, 135, 155, 160
notes/recipes 250
oils suitable for 259
Palaeolithic 124–5
programmes on TV 111
sauces 260–61
and social interaction 124–5, 212, 238
vegetable oil avoidance in 151–3, 222, 259, 261, 263
corn 157, 173–4, 252
fed to cattle 32, 34, 35
irradiated 49
oil 259
cortisol 175, 212, 224, 239
and alcohol 206–7, 208
and appetite 224
and exercise 265
and melatonin 227, 228
and mindfulness 241
and night work 226–7, 253
and student
s 224
Crick, Francis 53
crisps 201, 258, 260, 261, 290
Cro-Magnon man 121–2, 122
Cronenberg, David (epigraph, Consumed) 102
Cushing’s syndrome 206–7
dairy 157, 157, 174, 174, 182, 219, 251, 262, 263, 278–9
glycaemic load 269, 288
palmitic acid in 282–3
see also butter; cheese; milk
Darwin, Charles
evolution theory 34, 53
neo-Darwinism 54
On the Origin of Species 53
Dawkins, Richard: The Selfish Gene 112
dehydration 10, 11
dementia 189
depression 155
diabetes 38, 47, 49, 52, 73, 98n, 99, 105, 155, 158–9, 160, 197
and melatonin deficiency 228
in pregnancy 98
‘diet–heart’ hypothesis 141–50, 160, 171, 181, 277–81, 282–3
dietary changes, from Palaeolithic to modern era 118–35
dietary deficiencies 163–70
and obesity 170–95
and scurvy 168–70
thiamine deficiency and beriberi 163–8
vitamin C deficiency and scurvy 168–70
Dietary Goals for the United States see McGovern Report and US dietary guidelines
dieting
appetite after 83
and body changes 216–17
and ghrelin levels 82, 83–4
intermittent fasting 221
ketogenic 220–21, 269, 270–71
and leptin 85–6, 86
and the liver 8
low-calorie 19–24, 23, 65–7, 83–4, 86, 215–16, 219
low-carb 220–21, 267–71
low-fat 66, 146, 219
low-GI 267–71
and Minnesota Starvation Experiment 21–2, 24
a ‘miracle diet book’ 214–15
and negative feedback see negative feedback in weight regulation
psychological affects 22, 24
raised weight set-point after 106, 107, 208, 215, 217
and subconscious power of the brain 27–8, 29, 64–5, 66–7, 77, 107
and weight loss ix–x, xii, xiii, 19–20, 29, 61–7, 86, 214–17
yo-yo/weight-cycling 65–7, 67, 107
dinitrophenol (DNP) 75–7
dinner, evening 252
DNA 53, 56, 94, 112, 113, 175
dopamine 188, 240–41
doubly labelled water 264
Doyle, Jackie 241–7
Dubai mall food court 44, 50, 54–5
Dukan diet 220
Dutch famine (1944–45) 51–2
eggs 156, 250, 251, 269, 278, 288
Einstein, Albert (epigraph) 137
Eisenhower, Dwight D. 140
Emiratis see United Arab Emirates (UAE)
endocannabinoids 187–8, 201, 260
endorphins 72
endosymbionts 113
energy balance
and leptin 85–6, 86, 89
and negative feedback see negative feedback in weight regulation
use and storage rule xiii, 5, 6–9, 8, 12–15, 13, 14, 28, 78
energy budget 114–16, 135
energy conversion, by chloroplasts 178
energy expenditure xiii, 5, 6–7, 8, 16, 100
active 7, 8, 16
balance with storage see energy balance: use and storage rule
and calorie restriction 21, 22–3, 23
comparison study between office workers and hunter-gatherers 264–5
through exercise see exercise
and expensive tissue hypothesis 115–16
fat–brain pathway control 81
maximum (energy budget) 114–16, 135
metabolic rate see basal metabolic rate (BMR); metabolic rate
passive 7, 8, 16
energy intake 20, 79, 80
average male 70
fat–brain pathway control 81
government advice 148
and inflammatory response 97
and leptin resistance 91–2, 97, 98, 99, 100
and sleep deficiency 253
and TNF-alpha 98
see also dieting; over-eating; snacking/snacks
energy storage xiii, 5–7, 15–16, 20, 26–30
and animals in approach to winter 191–2, 195
balance with use see energy balance: use and storage rule
and the brain 26–30, 66–7
and leptin 85–6, 86, 273–5
and the liver 8, 220
necessity calculated by brain see weight set-point theory
epi-mutations 53, 58, 59, 60
epigenetics 51–61
essential fatty acids
and animals in approach to winter 191–3
and the brain 188–9
and cell walls 184–6, 187, 194–5, 256
common food ratio of 286–91
and immune system 186–7
and inflammation 185–6, 186, 194–5, 199, 256
insulin and ratio of 187, 193, 199
and livestock diet 182, 262
obesity and ratio of 183–95, 256
omega-3 see omega-3 fatty acids
omega-6 see omega-6 fatty acids
omega messaging service 187–8, 191
opposing functions of omega brothers 184–7, 186
and the seasons 191–2
and weight set-point-based programme for losing weight 256–63
weight set-point theory and ratio of 187, 189–91, 195, 199, 203–4, 229–30
Western diet and ratio of 182–3, 187, 189–91, 195, 199, 203–4, 229–30, 258–9
European obesity rates 44
evolution theories 53–4
Darwinian 34, 53
Lamarckian 54
neo-Darwinian 55
neo-Lamarckian 55
evolutionary process 112–20, 135
in agricultural age 128
and Cro-Magnon man 121–2, 122
and dietary changes 118–35
from Homo erectus to Homo sapiens 115–19
making of ATP batteries 112, 135
and mitochondria 113
with replicant chains 112, 113
and taste buds 130
exercise 7, 16, 42, 217–18, 271
activity rules 266
and The Biggest Losers 63
and cortisol 265
and energy balance xiii, 5 see also energy balance
and insulin 265
and leptin 85
muscle toning 263–7
see also energy expenditure
famine 6, 12, 33–4, 46, 61, 94
brain’s preparation for 27–9, 66, 68, 106, 228 see also weight set-point theory
Dutch famine study 51–3
and Minnesota Starvation Experiment 21–2, 24
and thrifty gene hypothesis 47–9
see also starvation
Farah, Mo 268
farming communities 38–9, 39
Farooqi, Sadaf 87
fast foods 63, 138, 216, 217, 221, 222, 265
glycaemic load 291
omega-6 in 229, 230, 260
fasting, intermittent 221
fat–brain signalling pathway 81, 84–8
fat/fatty acids
and beer belly 206–7
brown 76
carbon chains and fatty acids 175–7, 176, 177
and cell walls 175
energy storage see energy storage
essential fats see essential fatty acids
fat cells 5–6, 8, 26, 84, 87, 96–7, 98–9, 197, 200
heart disease correlations 140, 141–2, 143, 145–53, 171 see also ‘diet–heart’ hypothesis
and hormones 175
ignored in anatomy classes 4
as insulator 5
leptin as fat controller see leptin
lightness 5
lipid deficiency 175
lipid research 175, 189
and liposuction 6
low-fat di
eting 66, 146, 219
and McGovern Report see McGovern Report and US dietary guidelines
molecules 175–7, 176, 177
monounsaturated 151, 176, 259
offal 125–6, 133, 156
omega-3 see omega-3 fatty acids
perception issues and nutritional science 210–11
polyunsaturated see polyunsaturates
in processed foods 150, 154, 180
properties 5–6, 18
and satiety 210, 211
saturated see saturated fats
trans-fats 153, 154, 182, 209, 281
US consumption of added fats/oils 152, 173, 174, 175
fight-or-flight response 71–2
fire
for cooking 118, 120, 124, 125, 135, 155, 160
log fires 18, 273–4
fish 178, 179, 182, 212, 251, 256, 262, 263, 269
glycaemic load 289
Flora 172
food addictions
and processed food design 154
sugar 134–5, 203–4, 232, 240–41
wheat 135, 232
food chain 178, 182
food cravings 81, 103, 168, 188, 202, 207, 253
mindful management of 245–6
sugar 73, 130, 201, 208, 240
see also food addictions
food culture 103, 211–13
food industry 73, 107, 152, 154–5, 202–3, 258
advertising 203, 275n
early markets and trading economy 129
food delivery companies 238
and government advice 150–53, 159–61, 172–4, 179, 202–3, 278
and industrialization 133–5
processed food see processed/Western-type foods
research sponsored by 147, 160, 211
and shelf life 183, 194, 258
and snacking 202–3
and view of obesity as a lifestyle choice 275
food preservatives 133–4
France
food culture and French Paradox 211–12
horse meat consumption 168
saturated fat intake 142, 211, 278
free will 42–3
French Paradox 211–12
Friedman, Jeffrey M. 86
fruit juices 201, 250, 287
scurvy and lemon/lime juice 170
fruits 36, 114, 119, 123, 124, 126, 127, 130, 132–3, 250
dried 133, 250
glycaemic load 269, 287
scurvy and the lack of fresh 168–70
FTO gene 59
Gamble, James 153–4
gastric band surgery xi, 103–4
gastric bypass xi–xii, 56, 104–5, 105
generational shift in obesity risk 58–9
genetic engineering 151
genetics
epigenetics 51–61
FTO gene 59
and generational shift in obesity risk 58–9
genetic assimilation 53
genetic engineering 134
hidden obesity genes 46
methylation 50–51
predisposition to obesity 33–4, 35, 42–62
thrifty gene hypothesis 47–9
and weight set-point theory 33–4, 35, 43–4, 47, 61
Germany
processed food/saturated fat intake 142, 229, 278
Why We Eat (Too Much) Page 34