For the wider discussion on the history of the world capitalist system, see Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time (Boston: Beacon Press, 1944); Robert Brenner, “The Origins of Capitalist Development: A Critique of Neo-Smithian Marxism,” New Left Review 104 (1977); Sidney W. Mintz, Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History (New York: Penguin, 1985); Eric R. Wolf, Europe and the People without History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); Ellen Meiksins Wood, The Origin of Capitalism (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1999).
The works of Bates, Open-Economy Politics, and Talbot, Grounds for Agreement, are central to chapter 3. The idea of “social regulation” is drawn from Louis Lefeber and Thomas Vietorisz, “The Meaning of Social Efficiency,” Review of Political Economy 19: 2 (2007), as well as Kevin Watkins, Growth with Equity Is Good for the Poor (Oxford: Oxfam GB, 2000); Michael A. Lebowitz, Build It Now: Socialism for the Twenty-First Century (New York: Monthly Review Press, 2006); Ananya Mukherjee Reed, Human Development and Social Power: Perspectives from South Asia (London: Routledge, 2008). This concept is more fully developed in Gavin Fridell, Alternative Trade: Legacies for the Future (Black Point, NS: Fernwood, 2013). For more on international commodity agreements, see Michael Barratt Brown, Fair Trade: Reform and Realities in the International Trading System (London: Zed Books, 1993); Peter Robbins, Stolen Fruit: The Tropical Commodities Disaster (London: Zed Books, 2003); Thomas Lines, Making Poverty: A History (London: Zed Books, 2008).
Chapter 4 draws social and economic data on Vietnamese coffee from the World Bank report, Daniele Giovannucci, Bryan Lewin, Rob Swinkels, and Panos Varangis, Vietnam Coffee Sector Report (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2004). Other excellent accounts include D. D’haeze, J. Deckers, D. Raes, T. A. Phong, and H. V. Loi, “Environmental and Socio-Economic Impacts of Institutional Reforms on the Agricultural Sector of Vietnam Land Suitability Assessment for Robusta Coffee in the Dak Gan Region,” Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 105(2005); Dang Thanh Ha and Gerald Shively, “Coffee Boom, Coffee Bust and Smallholder Response in Vietnam’s Central Highlands,” Review of Development Economics 12: 2 (2008); Jytte Agergaard Larsen, Niels Fold, and Katherine Gough, “Global–Local Interactions: Socioeconomic and Spatial Dynamics in Vietnam’s Coffee Frontier,” Geographical Journal 175: 2 (2009). The discussion on the Vietnam War and the post-war era is taken from Gabriel Kolko, Anatomy of a War: Vietnam, the United States, and the Modern Historical Experience (New York: New Press, 1994).
Chapter 5 draws on a wide-ranging literature on corporate power and social responsibility, including works by Michael Dawson, The Consumer Trap: Big Business Marketing in American Life (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2003); Susanne Soederberg, Corporate Power and Ownership in Contemporary Capitalism: The Politics of Resistance and Domination (London: Routledge, 2010); Anthony Winson, The Industrial Diet: The Degradation of Food and the Struggle for Healthy Eating (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2013), as well as Pendergrast, Uncommon Grounds. For more on Tim Hortons, see Patricia Cormack, “‘True Stories’ of Canada: Tim Hortons and the Branding of National Identity,” Cultural Sociology 2: 3 (2008); Steve Penfold, The Donut: A Canadian History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2008); and for Starbucks see Stefano Ponte, “The ‘Latte Revolution’? Regulation, Markets and Consumption in the Global Coffee Chain,” World Development 30: 7 (2002); Gavin Fridell, “The Co-Operative and the Corporation: Competing Visions of the Future of Fair Trade,” Journal of Business Ethics 86 (2009).
A great deal has been written on fair trade in recent years, including Dean Cycon, Javatrekker: Dispatches from the World of Fair Trade Coffee (White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green, 2007); Gavin Fridell, Fair Trade Coffee: The Prospects and Pitfalls of Market-Driven Social Justice (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2007); Daniel Jaffee, Brewing Justice: Fair Trade Coffee, Sustainability, and Survival (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007); Ian Hudson, Mark Hudson, and Mara Fridell, Fair Trade, Sustainability and Social Change (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013). Excellent edited volumes with case studies include Laura T. Raynolds, Douglas L. Murray and John Wilkinson (eds.), Fair Trade: The Challenges of Transforming Globalization (London: Routledge, 2007); Christopher M. Bacon, V. Ernesto Méndez, Stephen R. Gliessman, David Goodman, and Jonathan A. Fox (eds.), Confronting the Coffee Crisis: Fair Trade, Sustainable Livelihoods and Ecosystems in Mexico and Central America (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2008); Sarah Lyon and Mark Moberg (eds.), Fair Trade and Social Justice: Global Ethnographies (New York: New York University Press, 2010). Some important articles include Marie-Christine Renard, “The Interstices of Globalization: The Example of Fair Coffee,” Sociologia Ruralis 39: 4 (1999); Mark S. LeClair, “Fighting the Tide: Alternative Trade Organizations in the Era of Global Free Trade,” World Development 30: 6 (2002); Christopher Bacon, “Confronting the Coffee Crisis: Can Fair Trade, Organic, and Specialty Coffees Reduce Small-Scale Farmer Vulnerability in Northern Nicaragua?” World Development 33: 3 (2005); Darryl Reed, “What Do Corporations Have to Do with Fair Trade? Positive and Normative Analysis from a Value Chain Perspective,” Journal of Business Ethics 86: 1 (2009). Two recent excellent ethnographies are Sarah Lyon, Coffee and Community: Maya Farmers and Fair-Trade Markets (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2010); Paige West, From Modern Production to Imagined Primitive: The Social World of Coffee from Papua New Guinea (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2012). For more on organic coffee, see Tad Mutersbaugh, “The Number Is the Beast: A Political Economy of Organic-Coffee Certification and Producer Unionism,” Environment and Planning A 34 (2002). For a discussion of fair trade North, see Stacey Byrne and Errol Sharpe, In Pursuit of Justice: JustUs! Coffee Roasters Co-op and the Fair Trade Movement (Black Point, NS: Fernwood, forthcoming).
The final chapter draws on the political economy of food and food sovereignty, including Tony Weis, The Global Food Economy: The Battle for the Future of Farming (Halifax, NS: Fernwood, 2007); Jennifer Clapp, Food (Cambridge: Polity, 2011); and Haroon Akram-Lodhi, Hungry for Change: Farmers, Food Justice and the Agrarian Question (Black Point, NS: Fernwood, 2013), which contains an excellent discussion on the connection between the state, powerful philanthropic organizations, and biotechnology applied to agriculture. For more on the developmental state, see Mark Weisbrot, Dean Baker, and David Rosnick, The Scorecard on Development: 25 Years of Diminished Progress (Washington, DC: Center for Economic and Policy Research, 2005); and Chang, Bad Samaritans. For more on the environmental sustainability of small-farmer, shade-grown coffee, see Robert A. Rice, “A Rich Brew from the Shade,” Americas 50: 2 (1998); Patricia Moguel and Victor M. Toledo, “Biodiversity Conservation in Traditional Coffee Systems of Mexico,” Conservation Biology 13: 1 (1999); José Sarukhán and Jorge Larson, “When the Commons Become Less Tragic: Land Tenure, Social Organization, and Fair Trade in Mexico,” in Joanna Burger, Elinor Ostrom, Richard B. Norgaard, David Policansky, and Bernard D. Goldstein (eds.), Protecting the Commons: A Framework for Resource Management in the Americas (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2001). On the “rise of the South,” see UNDP, Human Development Report 2013: The Rise of the South – Human Progress in a Diverse World (New York: UNDP, 2013).
An excellent resource on fair trade South and CLAC is Marco Coscione, CLAC and the Defense of the Small Producer, trans. Lizzy Solano Guzmán (Black Point, NS: Fernwood, 2014), English translation of La CLAC y la defensa del pequeño productor (Santo Domingo: CLAC and Editorial Funglode, 2012). For more on coffee and global justice, see Global Exchange (www.globalexchange.org) and Oxfam International (www.oxfam.org).
Index
Africa
export from 64, 86, 134–6
rapid market liberalization 82
Robusta beans 55–6, 59
see also individual countries
agriculture
Arabica vs. Robusta beans 54, 55–6, 143–5
Asian Robusta export 134
berry borer/la broca 31, 69, 128
/> boom and bust history 50–8
climate and 3, 130
control by corporations 122
dry vs. wet method 34–5
environmental impacts 69, 89, 126–8
Ethiopian beans 136–9
fair trade Arabica beans 108, 110
from food to export crops 77
full-sun-grown Arabica 31, 69, 126–8
“Green Revolution” and 127
ICA agreements and bean varieties 59
India 85
industrialization 28–9
innovations and technology 123
leaf rust 21, 31, 61, 69, 144, 145
monocropping 144
new technologies 47, 59
organic 20
qualities of Arabica beans 11–12, 34, 51, 130
Robusta beans 36
shade-grown beans 33–4
state reform and 121
subsidies for farmers 123
sustainable 20
Vietnam and 73, 77, 79–80, 81, 84, 88, 90
see also farms, large/plantations; farms, small
Angola 56
Arbenz, Jacobo 39
Asia
coffee consumption 132–3
second in production 86
Association of Coffee-Producing Countries (ACPC)
formation of 120
Bacon, Christopher 109
Banco Agrario 123
banking, global crisis of 124–5
Barrios, Justo Rufino 33
Bates, Robert 7
Belgium 56
Bolivia 142
Brazil
alliance with Colombia 53
Arabica beans 51, 59
average yields 84
Black Frost of 1975 61
coffee statecraft 50–5, 148
consumption of coffee 36, 65, 132, 133
droughts 2, 71
economic development 131
fair trade support 142
historical coffee development 29–32
ICA system and 58–63, 68
pioneers methods 30–1
slavery and debt peonage 29–30, 31, 32
as top producer 36, 72, 85
Brazilian Coffee Roasters’ Association (ABIC) 132
BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa) group 131
Britain
climate change research 130
industrialization 27
post-colonial trade 56
slave trade 27
Starbucks’ tax avoidance 104–5
unequal competition 25
Burundi
coffee economy of 3, 56
corporations more powerful than 10–11
Cameroon 56
Canada
fair trade companies 114
identity and nationalism 101
Starbucks and unions 104
Canadian Auto Workers, Local 3000 (CAW 3000) union 104
capitalism
corporate power 95–6
Dollar–Wall Street regime (DWSR) 125–6
“free trade” concept 15–18, 19, 46, 71, 93
historical impact on coffee 28–37
impact on agriculture 28
neoliberal dominance 105–6, 108, 145–6
pressure on indigenous groups 32–3
production for export 148
social impacts of 18, 87
territorial and capital logics 8–10, 37, 48, 64, 121
uncertainties of 83–4
vision of history 24
Central America
climate change and 130
continuing inequalities 143–8
pressure on indigenous groups 32–3
shade-grown coffee 128
state violence and coffee politics 37–9
see also individual countries
Ceylon see Sri Lanka
Chase & Sanborn 99–100
China
coffee consumption 59, 133–4
economic development 131
CLAC see Latin American and Caribbean Network of Small Fair Trade Producers
class identity and branding 100
Coffee and Farmer Equity (CAFE) 115–16
coffee processing and products
corporate domination 90
development of 25
instant 55
quality of beans 55–6
specialty coffees 13–14, 20, 98
Vietnam and 81
see also corporations
coffee statecraft
collective action of ICA 62
and crises 19–20, 145–6
as a goal 147–8
managing the coffee sector 41–3
rise of the South 21
risks of 83
role in market 4–5, 18
Vietnam and 72–3, 77–83
coffee trade
alternatives dismissed 48
commodification of 5
crises of 71–2, 143–8
economic statecraft 91
Ethiopian Commodity Exchange (ECX) 137–9
export statistics 36
fair trade prices 110, 111
financialization of the chain 124–6
“free” 15–18, 19, 46, 71, 93
global value chain approach 7–10
historical view of 18, 23–8, 46, 47, 66–7
ICA system and 63–5, 66–70
impact of capitalism on 28–37
intellectual property rights 137–9
international price regulation 21
price fluctuations in 1–5, 50–8, 72
primary commodity regulation 49
protectionism 15
social relations of commodities 23–4
specialty coffee 13–14
top exporters 86
“tourist” coffees 59, 68
collective action
Colombian coffee strike 123–4
ICA Geneva Group 60–1
colonialism see imperialism and colonialism
Colombia
2013 coffee strike 123–4, 148
alliance with Brazil 53
boom and bust 36, 52–3, 57–8, 72, 84
full-sun farming 127
good for small farmers 33
ICA system and 58–63
“Juan Valdez” marketing 45
mild varieties 59
poor harvest years 61, 65
sun-grown coffee 34
wet-method processing 35
Communism 49
US fear of 58
Vietnam and 75–6
Conservation International 115
consumers
advertising campaigns 44–5
caffeine and 44
changing patterns of 36–7
“coffee break” concept 45
comfort of coffee 23
developing consumption 43–6
ethical 5–6, 95
little actual choice 97–8
North American 25–6
power of 96–7
rise of the South 131–4
say in production 112
trends of 20
United States and 30, 36–7, 43, 133
see also fair trade
corporate social responsibility (CSR)
cannot match state impact 146
minimal action of 118–19
neoliberalism and 105–6
Starbucks and 103–6, 117
corporations
anti-unionism 102–4
brand power 12, 98, 99–101
cost-price squeeze 122–4
domination of 12–14, 90
fair trade and 108, 114–18
food sovereignty movements and 141
global trade and 8, 106–7
relations with states 95–6
rise of the South 131–6
social justice influence on 93–4
social responsibility 20, 94
state intervention and 6
tax avoidance 104–5
uneven economy and 3–4
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br /> see also corporate social responsibility; roasters and retailers
Costa Rica
ACPC and 120
continuing inequalities 143
good for small farmers 33
ICA system and 62, 68
neoliberalism and 42
Coffee Page 18