(5) The Kriegsmarine (Navy) High Command was OKM, the Oberkommando der Kriegsmarine, commanded by Grand Admiral Erich Raeder from 1935 to 1943, when he was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz for the remainder of the war.
(6) The Luftwaffe (Air Force) High Command was OKL, the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe, and there was only one commander, Reichsmarschal Hermann Göring.
From 1939 onward there were four General Staffs, the Wehrmachtführungsstab, the General Staff of the Army, that of the Luftwaffe, and that of the Kriegsmarine.
79. Boog et al., Der Angriff, 572.
80. Siegfried Knappe with Ted Brusaw, Soldat: Reflections of a German Soldier, 1936–1945 (New York: Dell Publishing, 1993), 229–34.
81. G. K. Zhukov, The Memoirs of Marshal Zhukov (New York: Delacorte Press, 1971), 40.
82. Ibid., 354.
83. Georgi K. Zhukov, Marshal Zhukov’s Greatest Battles (New York: Harper & Row, 1969), 91; David M. Glantz, Colossus Reborn (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2005), 21.
84. Tooze, Wages of Destruction, 403.
85. David Strauss, Menace in the West: The Rise of French Anti-Americanism in Modern Times (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1978), 51.
86. Erik Goldstein and John Maurer, eds., The Washington Conference, 1921–22: Naval Rivalry, East Asian Stability and the Road to Pearl Harbor (Essex, England: Frank Cass, 1994), 113.
87. U.S. Department of State, Peace and War: United States Foreign Policy, 1931–1941 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1983), 94.
88. Peter Wetzler, Hirohito and War: Imperial Tradition and Military Decision Making in Prewar Japan (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1998), 39; Mark R. Peattie and David C. Evans, Kaigun: Strategy Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1997); H. P. Willmott, The Barrier and the Javelin: Japanese and Allied Pacific Strategies, February to June 1942 (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1983).
89. John Costello, The Pacific War, 1941–1945 (New York: HarperCollins, 1982), 116.
90. Edward S. Miller, War Plan Orange: The U.S. Strategy to Defeat Japan, 1897–1945 (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2007), 63.
91. Iguchi Takeo, Demystifying Pearl Harbor: A New Perspective from Japan, trans. David Noble (Tokyo: International House of Japan, 2010), 67. See also the Daibon ‘ei rikugunbu shidohan kimitsu senso nisshi [Confidential War Diaries of the War-guidance-Section of the Army Division, Imperial General Headquarters], 2 vols. (Keneisha, 1998).
92. Miller, War Plan Orange, 122.
93. Iguchi proves that contrary to the claims of Robert Stinnett (Day of Deceit: The Truth About FDR and Pearl Harbor [New York: Free Press, 2001]), the “Climb Mount Nitaka” message was not broadcast in English. Yamamoto’s own biographer notes that “the message was encoded syllable by syllable, using the five-digit random number code,” and the original decrypt contains the legend “(M) Navy Trans 4/24/46” meaning that the translation was not completed until April 24, 1946 (Iguchi, Demystifying Pearl Harbor, 145–47).
94. “Pearl Harbor Truly a Sneak Attack, Papers Show,” New York Times, December 9, 1999, http://www.nytimes.com/1999/12/09/world/pearl-harbor-truly-a-sneak-attack-papers-show.html?pagewanted=2&src=pm.
95. Not only does Iguchi bury the arguments of Robert Stinnett and other “Back Door to War” theorists by proving that Stinnett had critically misunderstood one of his key pieces of evidence—which had not even been translated until 1946—but Iguchi also shows that a new generation of Japanese apologists have risen to take up the “Back Door to War” banner as a means of absolving Japan of the attack. See Iguchi, Demystifying Pearl Harbor, 148.
Chapter 6: Canopy of Freedom
1. Peter R. Mansoor, The GI Offensive in Europe: The Triumph of American Infantry Divisions, 1941–1945 (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2002).
2. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States Colonial Times to 1970, Bicentennial Edition, Vol. 1 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1975), 131 (Series 29-42).
3. John Morton Blum, V Was for Victory: Politics and American Culture During World War II (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1948), 115.
4. Several good biographies of Hughes exist, but none covers all aspects of his life. See Richard Hack, Hughes: The Private Diaries, Memos and Letters: The Definitive Biography of the First American Billionaire (Beverly Hills, CA: New Millennium Press, 2002); Peter Harry Brown and Pat H. Broeske, Howard Hughes: The Untold Story (New York: Penguin Books, 1996); Donald Barlett and James B. Steele, Empire: The Life, Legend and Madness of Howard Hughes (New York: W. W. Norton, 1979); and Terry Moore and Jerry Rivers, The Passions of Howard Hughes (Los Angeles: General Publishing Group, 1996).
5. John Heitmann, “The Man Who Won the War: Andrew Jackson Higgins,” Louisiana History, 34, 1993, 35–40, and his “Demagogue and Industrialist,” Gulf Coast Historical Review, 5, 1990, 152–62.
6. Ibid.
7. Randall Hansen, Fire and Fury: The Allied Bombing of Germany, 1942–1945 (New York: NAL Caliber, 2008), 37.
8. Ibid., 23, 25.
9. Ibid., 25.
10. Ronald Schaffer, Wings of Judgment: American Bombing in World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); Michael S. Sherry, The Rise of American Air Power (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989); Stephen L. McFarland, America’s Pursuit of Precision, 1910–1945 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2008).
11. Hansen, Fire and Fury, 131.
12. Tooze, Wages of Destruction, 603.
13. Mark Mazower, Dark Continent: Europe’s Twentieth Century (New York: Vintage, 1998), 187.
14. Ibid., 205.
15. Ibid., 192.
16. Ibid., 193.
17. Ibid.
18. William Manchester, American Caesar: Douglas MacArthur, 1880–1964 (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1978).
19. Donald Knox, Death March: The Survivors of Bataan (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2002); Manny Lawton, Some Survived: An Eyewitness Account of the Bataan Death March and the Men Who Lived Through It (New York: Algonquin Books, 2004), 18.
20. Franklin D. Roosevelt, Broadcast to the Nation, April 28, 1942, http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1942/420428a.html.
21. James H. Doolittle and Carroll V. Glines, I Could Never Be So Lucky Again: An Autobiography (New York: Bantam Books, 1991); Paolo Coletta, “Launching the Doolittle Raid on Japan, April 18, 1942,” Pacific Historical Review, 63, February 1993, 73–86.
22. Joseph H. Alexander, Edson’s Raiders: The 1st Marine Raider Battalion in World War II (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2000); Richard Frank, Guadalcanal: The Definitive Account of the Landmark Battle (New York: Random House, 1990).
23. Robert M. Citino, Death of the Wehrmacht: The German Campaigns of 1942 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2007), 112.
24. Erich von Manstein, Lost Victories (Chicago: Henery Regnery & Co, 1958), 238.
25. Citino, Death of the Wehrmacht, 114–15.
26. Horst Boog, Werner Rahn, Reinhard Stumpf, and Bernd Wegner, Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg, Vol. 6, Der Globale Krieg (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags Anstalt, 1990), 778.
27. Michelle Malkin, In Defense of Internment: The Case for “Racial Profiling” in World War II and the War on Terror (Washington, DC: Regnery, 2004).
28. Paul Carell, Unternehmen Barbarossa (Berlin West: Ullstein Verlag, 1963), 473.
29. Boog, Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg, 783.
30. Ibid.
31. Carell, Unternehmen Barbarossa, 443.
32. Ibid., 444; Citino, Death of the Wehrmacht, 257.
33. Desmond Young, The Desert Fox (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1950), 10.
34. Alun Chalfont, Montgomery of Alamein (New York: Atheneum, 1976), 151.
35. Rick Atkinson, An Army at Dawn: The War in North Africa, 1942–1943 (New York: Henry Holt & Co., 2002), 258.
36. Merle Miller, Ike: The Soldier as They Knew Him (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 198
7), 463.
37. Sam Moses, At All Costs: How a Crippled Ship and Two American Merchant Mariners Turned the Tide of World War II (New York: Random House, 2006); Ernle Bradford, Siege: Malta, 1940–1943 (South Yorkshire, England: Pen and Sword, 2003).
38. Mansoor, The GI Offensive in Europe.
39. Mitchell, “GI in Europe,” 309.
40. Charles Royster, A Revolutionary People at War: The Continental Army and American Character, 1775–83 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1979), 219.
41. Mitchell, “GI in Europe,” 304–16.
42. Mansoor, GI Offensive in Europe, 164.
43. Jonathan B. Parshall and Anthony P. Tully, Shattered Sword: The Untold Story of the Battle of Midway (Washington, DC: Potomac Books, 2005), 407.
44. Hansen, Fire and Fury, 64.
45. Ibid., 129.
46. Ibid., 131.
47. Elke Frohlich, ed., Die Tagebucher von Joseph Goebbels, Teil II Diktate 1941–1945 (Munich: KG Saur, 1994). See entries for December 23–25, 1943, for example. For the most recent biography of Goebbels, see Toby Thaker, Joseph Goebbels: Life and Death (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009). Special thanks to Schweikart’s University of Dayton colleague Lawrence J. Flockerzie for his unpublished paper “Joseph Goebbels and the Third Reich at Year’s End, 1943,” 2011, in Schweikart’s possession.
48. Larry Schweikart, “Kursk: A Reappraisal,” Against the Odds, 2, December 2003, 20–23.
49. Donald L. Miller, Masters of the Air: America’s Bomber Boys Who Fought Against Nazi Germany (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006), 254; Richard G. Davis, Carl Al Spaatz and the Air War in Europe (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institute, 1992), 303.
50. Albert Speer, Inside the Third Reich: The Classic Account of Nazi Germany by Hitler’s Armaments Minister (London: Phoenix, 2003), 468.
51. Tooze, Wages of Destruction, 627.
52. Ibid., 548.
53. Ibid., 609.
54. Ibid., 521.
55. Ibid., 317.
56. Hitler, Hitler’s Second Book, 15.
57. Tooze, Wages of Destruction, 549.
58. Paul Julian Weindling, Epidemics and Genocide in Eastern Europe, 1890–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 257–60.
59. Ibid., 263. Before the war, Germany had a cremation culture, possessing the highest percentage of cremations in Europe, and German “cremationists [had] a special sense of leadership in the international movement” for cremation (ibid., 264). In the 1930s they led the call for international cremation federations and agreements for the transport of ashes. Now sanctioned by Hitler, the movement spread: by 1939, there were more than 130 German crematoria, performing almost 100,000 processes a year—many times that of Britain. Even the Nazified cremations, though, were obsessively regulated, with all urn sizes standardized and to be placed only in designated columbaria, never returned to relatives. As the historian of disease and cremation in Eastern Europe noted, “Freedom of choice in death was not acceptable under Nazism” (ibid., 266–68). Thus, even before the first killing camps were up and running, the ironic employment of the death ritual of heroic Teutons for “subhumans” became institutionalized.
60. Mark Roseman, The Wannsee Conference and the Final Solution: A Reconsideration (New York: Picador, 2002), 34. The timing of the shift from mass executions of national leadership to the dedicated destruction of the Jews is a source of debate among historians. Most put the decisive turning point in Hitler’s thinking to proceed with the Holocaust (as opposed to merely entertaining it as an option) at September 1941,when he ordered mass deportations to camps even while the Soviet campaign raged on (ibid., 58–59). See also Philippe Burrin, Hitler and the Jews: The Genesis of the Holocaust (London: Edward Arnold, 1994).
61. Richard Breitman, The Architect of Genocide: Himmler and the Final Solution (New York: Knopf, 1991); Weindling, Epidemics and Genocide in Eastern Europe, 296.
62. Weindling, Epidemics and Genocide in Eastern Europe, 296.
63. Ibid., 279.
64. Ibid., 300.
65. Roseman, Wannsee Conference, 127.
66. Christopher R. Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy, September 1939–March 1942 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2004), 16.
67. Ibid., 111–17.
68. Peter Padfield, Himmler: Reichsführer SS (New York: Macmillan, 1990), 270; J. Von Lang and C. Sybill, eds., Eichmann Interrogated (London: Bodley Head, 1982), 9203.
69. “Protocols of the Wannsee Conference,” http://www.ghwk.de/engl/protengl.htm.
70. Browning, Origins of the Final Solution, 177.
71. Ibid., 369. Jurgen Matthaus, who contributed to Browning’s book and wrote one of the critical chapters on the timing of the final solution, places the extermination decision by Hitler in “mid-July, during the first peak of victory euphoria,” and writes that Hitler “led Himmler and Heydrich to believe he expected proposals concerning the fate of the rest of European Jewry that went beyond the expulsion plans of the previous years” (370).
72. Roseman, Wannsee Conference, 110. For example, Eichmann referred to “business with the engine” at his Jerusalem trial, and did not distinguish between killing via an internal combustion engine or a cyanide technique.
73. Paul Johnson, Modern Times: A History of the World from the Twenties to the Nineties (New York: HarperCollins, 1991), 414.
74. Nuremberg Document NG-5291, cited in Saul Friedländer, Pius XII and the Third Reich (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1966), 104.
75. Ibid., 104–10.
76. Ibid., 90.
77. Theo J. Schulte, “The German Soldier in Occupied Russia,” in Addison and Calder, Time to Kill, 277. Daniel J. Goldhagen (Hitler’s Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust [New York: Vintage, 1997]) argues that everyday Germans were hip-deep in blood, and that an “eliminationist” anti-Semitism constituted a central part of ordinary Germans’ existence. Yehuda Bauer (Rethinking the Holocaust [New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000]) agrees. See the differing views in Ron Rosenbaum, Explaining Hitler: The Search for the Origins of His Evil (New York: Harper Perennial, 1999); Christopher R. Browning, Fateful Months: Essays on the Emergence of the Final Solution (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1985), and his The Path to Genocide: Essays on Launching the Final Solution (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Lucy Dawidowicz, The War Against the Jews (New York: Holt, Reinhart, and Winston, 1975); and Geoffrey P. Megargee, War of Annihilation: Combat and Genocide on the Eastern Front 1941 (New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006).
78. Ian Kershaw, “German Popular Opinion and the ‘Jewish Question,’ 1939–1943: Some Further Reflections,” in Wolfgang Benz, Die Juden in Deutschland: Leben unter nationalsozialistischer Herrschaft (Tubingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1986), 277, 281, 288. Among those who agree with Kershaw—and thus depart from Goldhagen—are Sarah Gordon, Hitler, Germans, and the “Jewish Question” (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984); Saul Friedlander, “Ideology and Extermination: the Immediate Origins of the Final Solution,” in Ronald Smelser, ed., Lessons and Legacies V: The Holocaust and Justice (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 2002), 31–48; Friedlander’s The Years of Persecution, Vol. 1, Nazi Germany and the Jews (New York: HarperCollins, 1997); David Bankier, The Germans and the Final Solution: Public Opinion Under Nazism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); and Otto Dov Kulka, “ ‘Public Opinion’ in Nazi Germany and the ‘Jewish Question,’ ” Jerusalem Quarterly, 25, Fall 1982, 121–44 and 26, Winter 1982, 34–45.
79. Kershaw, “German Popular Opinion.”
80. Samuel A. Stouffer et al., The American Soldier (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1949), 11:32–35.
81. Michael D. Doubler, Closing with the Enemy: How the GIs Fought the War in Europe, 1944–1945 (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1994), 258.
82. Ibid.
83. Atkinson, An Army at Dawn, 463, referencing a memo, “Comparison of Executions During WW I and WW II
,” U.S. Army JAG Undersecretary of War, April 22, 1946.
84. Frank Furlong Mathias, G. I. Jive: An Army Bandsman in World War II (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1983); interviews with the author, various dates, 1985–90.
85. Harry Gailey, MacArthur Strikes Back: Decision at Buna: New Guinea 1942–1943 (Novato, CA: The Presidio Press, 2000).
86. Courtney Whitney, MacArthur: His Rendezvous with History (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1956), 67–68.
87. Francis Trevelyan Miller, General Douglas MacArthur: Soldier-Statesman, rev. ed. (Philadelphia: International Press, 1951), 27. Douglas MacArthur, Reminiscences (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964).
88. William Manchester, American Caesar: Douglas MacArthur 1880–1964 (Boston: Back Bay Books, 2008).
89. E. B. Potter, Nimitz (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1976), 10.
90. John Prados, Combined Fleet Decoded (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1995), 317.
91. Michael Smith, The Emperor’s Codes (New York: Arcade Publishing, 2007), 143–44; Prados, Combined Fleet, 410–11.
92. David M. Glantz with Jonathan M. House, To the Gates of Stalingrad (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2009), 261–65.
93. David M Glantz, Zhukov’s Greatest Defeat (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1999), 304–8.
94. Boog, Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg, 6:1003–4.
95. Erich von Manstein, Verlorene Siege (Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1958), 334.
96. Andrei Grechko, Battle for the Caucasus (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1971), 93–194.
97. Stephen E. Ambrose, The Supreme Commander: The War Years of General Dwight D. Eisenhower (New York: Doubleday & Company, 1969), 158.
98. Ibid., 159.
99. Nikolai Tolstoy, Stalin’s Secret War (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1982), 57.
100. Winston Churchill, The Hinge of Fate (Cambridge, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1950), 571–81
101. Douglas E. Nash, Hell’s Gate, 2nd ed. (Stamford, CT: RZM Publishing, 2005), 298, 403.
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