Richard Gameson ed., The Study of the Bayeux Tapestry, The Boydell Press, Woodbridge 1997.
Paul Hill, The Road to Hastings: The Politics of Power in Anglo-Saxon England, Tempus Publishing, Stroud 2005.
C. Warren Hollister, Anglo-Saxon Military Institutions on the Eve of the Norman Conquest, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1962.
Eric John, ‘Edward the Confessor and the Norman Succession’, English Historical Review, 371 (1979), 241–67.
Charles Jones, The Forgotten Battle of Fulford, Tempus Publishing, Stroud 2007.
Sten Körner, The Battle of Hastings, England and Europe 1035–1066, Skånska Centraltryckeriet, Lund 1964.
Ryan Lavelle, Æthelred II, King of the English 978–1016, Tempus Publishing, Stroud 2002.
M. K. Lawson, The Battle of Hastings 1066, Tempus Publishing, Stroud 2002.
M. K. Lawson, Cnut, England’s Viking King, Tempus Publishing, Stroud 2004.
Charles H. Lemmon, The Field of Hastings, St Leonards-on-Sea 1970.
H. R. Loyn, Anglo-Saxon England and the Norman Conquest, Longmans Green, London 1966.
Frank McLynn, 1066: The Year of the Three Battles, Pimlico, London 1999.
Emma Mason, St Wulfstan of Worcester, c.1005–1095, Oxford 1990.
Stephen Morillo, ed., The Battle of Hastings, sources and interpretations, The Boydell Press, Woodbridge 1999.
Catherine Morton, ‘Pope Alexander II and the Norman Conquest’, Latomus, XXXIV, Tournai 1975, 362–82.
Gale R. Owen-Crocker, King Harold II and the Bayeux Tapestry, The Boydell Press, Woodbridge 2005.
J. H. Round, Feudal England, Allen and Unwin, London 1964.
Pauline Stafford, Queen Emma and Queen Edith, Oxford 1997.
Sir Frank Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, The Oxford History of England, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1962.
Sir Frank Stenton, ed., The Bayeux Tapestry, a comprehensive survey, Phaidon Press, London 1965.
Matthew Strickland ed., Anglo-Norman Warfare: studies in late Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Norman Warfare, The Boydell Press, Woodbridge 1992.
Victoria Thompson, Dying and Death in Later Anglo-Saxon England, The Boydell Press, Woodbridge 2004.
Ian W. Walker, Harold: The Last Anglo-Saxon King, Sutton Publishing, Stroud 2004.
Dorothy Whitelock, The Beginnings of English Society, The Pelican History of England, London 1954.
Whitelock, Douglas, Lemmon and Barlow, The Norman Conquest: Its Setting and Impact, Eyre and Spottiswoode, London 1966.
Ann Williams, The English and the Norman Conquest, Boydell and Brewer, Woodbridge 1995.
Ann Williams, Kingship and Government in Pre-Conquest England, c.500–1066, Macmillan 1999.
David M. Wilson, The Anglo-Saxons, Penguin, London 1972.
INDEX
Abelard, Peter 206
Adalbéron, Archbishop of Reims 46
Adela, Countess of Blois 195, 230, 231
Ælfgar Leofricson
Earl of East Anglia, 28;
Earl of Mercia, 27–8, 124
Ælfgifu (half-sister of Athelstan) 235 n.xxviii
Ælfgifu of Northampton 11, 233 n.iv
Ælfric of Abingdon, 31, 79; Colloquy, 66
Æthelberht, King of Kent 59–60
Æthelred I, King of Wessex 32
Æthelred II, King of England 11, 17, 18, 32, 37, 55, 169
and Danegeld 14, 60–1, 62, 100
and navy 105
and Viking raids 5–6, 8, 10–11, 76
Æthelric, Bishop of Sussex 53, 225
Æthelric of Kelveden 144
Æthelweard, ealdorman 79
Æthelwold, St 136, 213
Æthelwulf, King of Wessex 32
Agatha, wife of Edward the Atheling 29
Agincourt, battle of 2
Alcuin 75, 76, 82
Aldyth (wife of Harold II) 210
Alexander II, Pope 133, 140, 142
Alfred the Atheling 15–17, 21, 24, 37
Alfred the Great, King of Wessex 5, 19, 25, 32–3, 52, 57, 59, 60
and Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 88–90, 99, 218
and education and learning 75–6, 77–8, 88
and fortifications 98–9, 162
and kingship 93
and navy 99, 104–5
and papacy 136
pilgrimage to Rome 13, 64
Amatus of Montecassino 195, 231
Andredesweald forest 177
Angevin kings 60, 203, 212, 214
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
and Æthelred 58, 88–9
and Alfred the Atheling 16–17
and Alfred the Great 88–90, 99, 218
and army 102
and battle of Hastings 3, 96, 143, 171, 176–7, 199
and battle of Stamford Bridge 152, 155
and Edward II the Confessor 20, 22–3, 24–5, 40, 46
and Harald Hardrada 150
and Harold II 28, 123, 164, 219–20
and pilgrimages 64
and ship-building 105
and submission to William II 200
translation of 79
value as source 218–20
versions 25, 36, 38, 46, 88, 155, 219, 226, 231–2
and Viking raids 9–10, 88, 99
Anglo-Saxon England
and Christianity 57, 70, 136
coinage 58
culture 2, 4, 55, 70–1, 81–5
language see English; literature
local government 59
as nation state 56
trade 12, 62–6, 73
unity 57–8
Viking raids on 5–10, 11, 24, 55, 57, 58, 61, 66, 75–6, 95
wealth 2, 9, 12, 55–6, 62–72, 209
see also army, English; law
Anna Comnena 119
archers
English 116, 175, 178–9
Norman 115, 175, 179–80, 184–6, 193–4
aristocracy
and fighting 93
Norman 211–12
armour and equipment 113–14, 117–21, 153, 156, 178, 180
army, English
of Alfred 99
archers 116, 175, 178–9
cavalry 108–9, 120, 155–6, 228
composition 95–6
desertions 172, 175–7, 228
equipment 103–4
forced marches 151–2, 156, 167, 179
infantry 110, 183, 186
and military service 62, 65, 100–4, 107–8, 143–4
payment 108
provisioning 116
shire levies 9–10, 99, 100–4, 164, 167, 178
size 96–7, 112, 171–3, 179
see also housecarls
army, French 94
army, Norman
archers 115, 175, 179, 180, 184–6, 193–4
Breton soldiers 112, 132, 183, 185–7, 193
cavalry 96, 107, 108, 109–10, 112–15, 117, 118–19, 174, 178, 183, 185–6, 193
composition 110–14, 131
equipment 104, 174
infantry 115–16, 175, 184–6
mercenaries 112, 135–6, 190
and military service 106–8, 110–12, 115
payment 115
penance imposed on 112, 141–2
provisioning 116, 166–7, 179
retreats 182, 185–92
size 96–7, 112, 163, 172
army, Norwegian 148–9, 153–7
Arques, William, Count of 42
Ashdown, battle of 177
Asser (scholar) 78
Assandun, battle of 10
Atheling, definition 233 n.iii
Athelstan, King of England 5, 45, 57, 59, 64, 76, 95, 104
Athelstan (son of Æthelred) 64
axes, bearded 104, 119–20, 185
Bachrach, Bernard S. 116, 190–1
Baldwin V, Count of Flanders 24–5, 28, 42, 131
banner
Fighting Man 70
papal 140, 142–3
Landwaster 150, 153, 156
Barlow, Frank 18, 80, 125, 126, 234 n.vii, 237 n.lxvii
/>
Bates, David 80–1, 236 n.xlv
Battle Abbey 142, 177–8
Battle Abbey Chronicle 174, 231
The Battle of Maldon 7–8, 58, 88, 215
Battles, full-scale 93–5
Baudri de Bourgeuil 181–2, 195, 230, 231
Bayeux Tapestry 48, 50–1, 53, 229–31
and armour 117–18, 178, 180
and death of Harold 193–6, 230, 231
and English army 104, 116
and Norman army 96, 174, 184
and papal banner 142
survival 67
value as source 229–31, 232
and weaponry 120
Bede, the Venerable 56–7, 76–7, 87
Benedict Biscop 77
Benedict VIII, Pope 12–13
Benedict X, Pope 237 n.lxxv
Beowulf 44, 69–70, 82–4, 118, 215
Bjorn Estrithson, Earl 27, 35–6
Blake, N. F. 215
blinding, as punishment 16–17, 194
Bloch, R. Howard 195–6
Boethius, The Consolation of Philosophy 93
Boniface of Mainz, St 76
Bosham, manor 50, 146–7, 196
Bretons, in Norman army 112, 132, 183, 185–7, 189, 193
Brown, R. Allen 49, 110, 152, 189–90, 193, 234 n.xv, 236 n.lix
Brunanburh, battle of (937) 95
burhs (fortified towns) 98–9, 136, 162
Burne, Col. A. H. 189
Byrhtnoth, ealdorman of Essex 7–8, 58, 100, 109, 215
Byrhtwold 88
Caldbec Hill 2, 177–8, 180
Campbell, James 55, 60, 79–80, 82, 234 n.xxi, 235 n.xxiii
Canterbury
and Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 25, 219
archbishopric 23, 137–8, 205–6
and Bayeux Tapestry 53, 229
Christ Church Abbey 53, 205, 225
Codex Aureus 70
Caradoc ap Gruffydd 123
Carmen de Hastingæ Proelio 146, 156–7, 159, 165, 171, 174–5, 181–4, 191–2, 220–3
cavalry
Anglo-Saxon 108–9, 120, 155–6, 228
Norman 96, 107, 108, 109–10, 112–15, 118–19, 174, 178, 183, 185–6, 193
Chanson de Roland 81, 184
chansons de geste 81, 214
Charlemagne 64, 75, 76
Charles the Simple, King of the Franks 6
Chibnall, Marjorie 111
Christ Church Abbey, Canterbury 53, 205, 225
Christianity
and learning 75–8
as unifying factor 56–7, 66–7
Christina, daughter of Edward the Atheling 29
Church, English 11, 67–8, 136–41, 205–7
churls 73, 100
Clapham, J. H. 109
Clark, Sir Kenneth 70
class, social 58, 60, 72–3, 93, 209
Norman ruling class 204–5
Cnut 10–15, 76, 169
coronation oath 200
fleet 69
and housecarls 13–14, 100
as king of Denmark and Norway 12
as king of England 10–15, 19, 36–7, 55, 203–4
laws 14, 103, 124–5, 203
Codex Aureus 70
coinage, English 58, 65, 130, 209–10
combat, trial by 165
Conan, Count of Brittany 132
Conrad, Holy Roman Emperor 12–13
coronation oath 200–1
Crécy, battle of 2
cross-bows 183
Crusade, First 135–6, 140
culture, Anglo-Saxon 2, 4
Cuthbert, St, stole and maniple 68, 213
Cyneheard 88–90
Cynewulf, King of Wessex 88–90
Danegeld 8–9, 14, 36, 60–1, 62, 99–100
Danelaw 5, 8, 56, 61, 101, 124, 148
Danes see Danelaw; Vikings
Dante Alighieri 134
Davies, R. H. C. 220–1
desertions, at Hastings 172, 175–7
Dives, Norman army at 116, 144–5, 160
divorce 74
Dodwell, C. R. 68–72
Domesday Book 59, 74–5, 101, 144, 200, 205, 207, 230
Douglas, D. C. 38, 42, 131, 237 n.lxxiii
The Dream of the Rood 86–7
Drogo, Count of the Vexin 15, 33
Dudo of St Quentin 190
Dunstan, St 53, 82, 136
Eadburh, abbess 76
Eadgyth (half-sister of Athelstan) 235 n.xxviii
Eadhild (sister of Athelstan) 64
Eadmer, History of Recent Events in England 48–9, 51–3, 206–7, 225
Eadred, King of England 70
Eadsige, Archbishop of Canterbury 43
ealdormen 72–3, 233 n.ii
Ealdred, Bishop 24
Bishop of Worcester 128, 138, 226
Archbishop of York 138, 142, 176, 199–200, 226
Ecgwynn (wife of Edward the Elder) 45
Edgar, King of England 5, 57–8, 76, 125, 136
Edgar the Atheling 29, 31–3, 199–200, 201, 205, 210–11
Edington, battle of 95
Edith (handfast wife of Harold Godwinson) 74, 210
Edith (wife of Edward the Confessor) 21–2, 24, 27, 28, 123, 127, 129, 224–5
Edmund Ironside, King of England 10–11, 12, 19, 28, 32, 64, 169
education, Anglo-Saxon 75–81
Edward, Archdeacon of London 205
Edward the Atheling or Exile(son of Edmund Ironside) 11, 28–9, 32–3, 43–4
Edward the Elder, King of Wessex 5, 45, 98
Edward I, King of England (the Martyr) 5–6, 17
Edward II (the Confessor), King of England 11, 14, 15, 17–21, 37–38, 59, 123
foreign policy 24–5
and Godwin 19–27, 36
and Harold Godwinson 23, 24, 25–9, 45–53, 124, 126–7
ill-health and death 125–6, 132
laws 124–5, 203
and lay literacy 79–80
and navy 26, 105
and Northumbrian uprising 123–5
succession to 21–2, 28–9, 31–41, 43–54, 126–7, 129, 223
warfare and diplomacy 94, 124
and William of Normandy 25, 37–41, 43–4, 48–50, 53–4, 129, 223, 229
see also Vita Ædwardi Regis
Edwin Leofricson, Earl of Mercia 124, 130, 149–50, 152, 157, 199, 205
Eleanor of Aquitaine 214
embroidery, English 68, 70, 75
Emma
as wife of Æthelred II 6, 10, 32, 37
as wife of Cnut 11, 15, 20
Encomium Emmæ Regina 15–16, 69, 233 n.vi, 235 n.xxxiv
English language 56–7, 212–13
dialects 91
and Normans 203, 207
and Norse language 204
and poetry 7, 81–8
and prose 88–91, 218
Erlend Thorfinnsson, Earl of Orkney 148, 157
Ermenfrid, Bishop of Sion 112, 141
esquires 113–14
Estrith (sister of Cnut) 35
Eustace, count of Boulogne 22–3, 33, 89, 222, 229
excommunication of Harold II 167–8, 175–6
Eystein Orri 156
Fécamp, abbey of 146
feudalism, Norman 96–7, 105–8, 111–12
The Fight at Finnesburh (heroic poem) 83
Fighting Man banner 4, 70
Fisher, H. A. L. 133–4
Flanders, Count of see Baldwin V, Count of Flanders; Robert le Frison
Flateyjarbók 19
Florence of Worcester 129–30, 143–4, 164
and battle of Hastings 171–3, 176
and coronation of Harold II 128, 138
and death of Edward II 127
and Harald Hardrada 150
and Tostig’s rising 123
value as source 226
fortifications
of Alfred 98–9, 162
Norman 98
responsibility for 62, 65
Freeman, E. A. 182
Fulle
r, Major-Gen. J. F. C. 178, 179–80, 186
fyrd 65, 147, 151, 196
general 100, 101, 143–4
select 100, 102–3
Gaimar, Geffrei, L’Estoire des Engleis 228
Gameson, Richard 234 n.xvii
Gate Fulford, battle of 149–50, 152, 157, 179
Genesis (heroic poem) 85
Geoffrey Martel, count of Anjou 41–3, 94, 131–2, 203
Giffard/Gilfard, knight 222
Gilbert, Archdeacon of Lisieux 133, 138–9
Gillingham, John 170
Godgifu (sister of Edward the Confessor) 15, 22, 33
Godwin, earl of Wessex 16–17, 71, 73, 204
and Edward II 19–27, 36, 39–40
Goebbels, Joseph, 53
gold, in Anglo-Saxon England 67–72
Golding, William 1
Gospatric 123
Grainge, Christine and Gerald 160
Gregory of Tours 76, 191
Gregory VII, Pope (Cardinal Hildebrand) 133–4, 135, 139–40, 142–3
Gruffydd ap Llewellyn 45, 94, 104, 167
Gunnhild (daughter of Earl Godwin) 80
Gunnhild (sister of Sweyn Forkbeard) 8
Guy, Bishop of Amiens, Carmen de Hastingæ Proelio 146, 156–7, 159, 165, 171, 174–5, 181–4, 191–2, 220–3
Guy, Count of Brionne 41
Guy, Count of Ponthieu 48, 50, 52, 221
Gyrth Godwinson, Earl of East Anglia 3, 28, 168–9, 186–7, 227
Gytha (wife of Earl Godwin) 35
Hakon Sweynsson 40, 48
Halley’s comet 130, 223
handfast marriage 11, 74, 233 n.iv
Harald Sigurdsson Hardrada, King of Norway 34–5, 36, 126
death 156, 157, 229
and Stamford Bridge 116, 117, 119, 151–7, 169, 181
and Tostig 147–50
Harald Sweynson, king of Denmark 12
Hardrada see Harald Sigurdsson Hardrada, King of Norway
Harold Bluetooth, King of Denmark 8, 14
Harold Godwinson, Earl of Wessex
and Alfred the Atheling 17
campaign in Wales 45, 94, 95, 104
as claimant to English throne 44–8
Battle of Hastings, The Page 23