http://scholar.google.com
http://inspirehep.net
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abstract_service.html
Each one has its own syntax, but collectively they will help you find any of the articles you might be looking for. The scientific community in astronomy, mathematics, and physics has, for the past two decades, posted freely available copies of articles at a repository on http://arxiv.org. Wherever possible, I have listed the link a given paper has to that website.
Finally, I interviewed a few of the protagonists for this book; in the notes that follow, I explicitly identify quotes that came from those interviews.
Prologue
The description of A. Eddington’s encounter with L. Silberstein is described firsthand in Chandrasekhar (1983). You might want to venture onto the “gr–qc” section of ArXiv.org to see the kind of weird but sometimes wonderful stuff that pops up in the field of relativity.
1. IF A PERSON FALLS FREELY
So much has been written about Einstein that I have been spoiled for choice. I have used a handful of superb biographies to guide me through his life. Fölsing (1998) is very detailed, nuanced, and richly documented. Isaacson (2008) captures the essence of the man, bringing real color to his life and times. Pais (1982) is a classic, focusing on his work and mapping out many of the mathematical and physical steps that led to his great discoveries.
As a panorama of physics at the beginning of the twentieth century, there is Bodanis (2001), a wonderful piece of narrative history, focusing on the lead-up to, and consequences of, Einstein’s famous E = mc2. Bodanis (2006) offers real insight into how Maxwell and his contemporaries transformed the world with their work on electricity and magnetism. Baum and Sheehan (1997) walk us through the beginning of the end of Newtonian gravity and Le Verrier’s ill-fated quest for the planet Vulcan.
There is a whole world of Einstein scholars out there. John Norton, John Stachel, and Michel Janssen, to name a few, have all really tried to get into his mind, spelling out his successes and failures. It is a rich literature that can really suck you in. Those who want a firsthand look at his discoveries, especially his miraculous year of 1905, should have a look at Stachel (1998), a compilation of his papers. Einstein’s first step in his quest for general relativity, the article for the Yearbook, is well worth a look, but it is probably easier to read a more gentle description in Einstein (2001).
[>] “When you pick up an application”: F. Haller, in Isaacson (2008), p. 67.
[>] “You are a very clever boy”: H. Weber to Einstein, in Isaacson (2008), p. 34.
[>] “considerably facilitates relations”: Einstein to W. Dällenbach, 1918, in Fölsing (1998), p. 221.
[>] “asymmetries”: Einstein in Stachel (1998) and Pais (1982), p. 140.
[>] Proust and Le Verrier: See Proust (1996).
Dickens and Le Verrier: See Dickens (2011).
[>] “How could a planet”: Le Verrier, 1859, in Baum and Sheehan (1997), p. 139.
[>] “If a person falls freely”: Einstein lecture in Kyoto, 1922, in Einstein (1982).
[>] “My papers are meeting with much acknowledgement”: Einstein to M. Solovine, 1906, in Fölsing (1998), p. 201.
“I must confess to you that I was amazed”: J. Laub to Einstein, 1908, in Fölsing (1998), p. 235.
2. THE MOST VALUABLE DISCOVERY
While Fölsing (1998) does a careful job of describing the context for the discovery of general relativity and how Einstein stumbled toward his final version, Pais (1982) provides the detail—the latter is very mathematical but also very rewarding. For Eddington I have relied heavily on three very different books. Chandrasekhar (1983) is a slim, respectful volume on his work and thought. Stanley (2007) addresses his more mystical and political stance and how he behaved during the First World War. Miller (2007) is a fantastic read where we get a sense of how complex Eddington was (and how difficult he would become later in life). A careful description of the eclipse expedition can be found in Coles (2001).
[>] “You know, once you start calculating”: Fölsing (1998), p. 311.
“mathematically cumbersome”: H. Minkowski to his students, in Reid (1970), p. 112, and Fölsing (1998), p. 311.
“superfluous erudition”: Fölsing (1998), p. 311.
“Since the mathematicians pounced”: Ibid., p. 245.
[>] “You’ve got to help me”: Ibid., p. 314.
[>] “The gravitation affair has been clarified to my full satisfaction”: Einstein to P. Ehrenfest, in Pais (1982), p. 223.
[>] “in the madhouse”: Einstein to H. Zangger, 1915, in Fölsing (1998), p. 349.
“the life or property”: Fölsing (1998), p. 345.
[>] “educated men of all states”: Ibid., p. 346.
[>] Meeting C. Perrine: Mota, Crawford, and Simões (2008).
“We can readmit Germany to international society”: H. Turner, 1916, in Stanley (2007), p. 88.
[>] “Think, not of a symbolic German”: Eddington (1916).
[>] “there has been between us something like a bad feeling”: Einstein to D. Hilbert, 1915, in Fölsing (1998), p. 376.
“the most valuable discovery of my life”: Einstein to A. Sommerfeld, 1915, in Fölsing (1998), p. 374.
[>] “We have tried to think that exaggerated and false claims made by Germans”: H. Turner, 1918, in Stanley (2007), p. 97.
“under present conditions the eclipse will be observed by very few people”: F. Dyson, 1918, in Stanley (2007), p. 149.
[>] “Through cloud. Hopeful”: Pais (1982), p. 304.
[>] “Eclipse Splendid”: Ibid.
“the most important”: J. J. Thomson, 1919, in Chandrasekhar (1983), p. 29.
[>] “Revolution in Science”: The Times, November 7, 1919.
“All Lights Askew”: New York Times, November 10, 1919.
[>] “In Germany I am called a German man of science”: Einstein on his theory, The Times, November 28, 1919.
3. CORRECT MATHEMATICS, ABOMINABLE PHYSICS
There is a wealth of information about the discovery of the expanding universe. The main papers can be found in the compilations of cosmological classics, a notable example of which is Bernstein and Feinberg (1986). I have avoided all discussion of “Mach’s principle,” which pushed Einstein to formulate his static universe model, but you can find a discussion of the debate between Einstein and de Sitter in Janssen (2006). A detailed and well-documented history of the expanding universe is Kragh (1996) and more recently Nussbaumer and Bieri (2009). For individual and more detailed descriptions of the main protagonists in this chapter see Tropp, Frenkel, and Chernin (1993) for Friedmann, and Lambert (1999) and the article by A. Deprit in Berger (1984) for Lemaître. An entertaining description of Hubble and Humason can be found in Gribbin and Gribbin (2004), and the Humason AIP interview in Shapiro (1965) is hugely informative. For some of the controversy over who did what in the discovery of the expanding universe (and the underappreciated role that Vesto Slipher played) I recommend Nussbaumer and Bieri (2011) and Prof. John Peacock’s homage to Slipher at http://www.roe.ac.uk/~jap/slipher.
[>] “The introduction of such a constant implies a considerable renunciation”: Einstein (2001).
“committed something in the theory of gravitation that threatens to get me interned in a lunatic asylum”: Einstein to P. Ehrenfest, 1917, in Isaacson (2008), p. 252.
[>] “To admit such possibilities seems senseless”: Ibid.
[>] “The cosmological constant . . . is undetermined”: Friedmann (1922), reprinted in Bernstein and Feinberg (1986).
[>] “the significance”: Einstein (1922), reprinted in Bernstein and Feinberg (1986).
“If you find the calculations presented in my letter correct”: Friedmann’s letter to Einstein, 1922, in Schweber (2008), p. 324.
“there are time varying solutions”: Einstein (1923), reprinted in Bernstein and Feinberg (1986).
[>] “a very brilliant student”: Douglas (1967).
[>] H. Weyl
and A. Eddington’s discussions of the de Sitter effect: Weyl (1923) and Eddington (1963).
[>] Vesto Slipher: The relevant papers are Slipher (1913), Slipher (1914), and Slipher (1917), which can be found at http://www.roe.ac.uk/~jap/slipher.
[>] K. Lundmark’s attempt at detecting the de Sitter effect: Lundmark (1924).
obscure Belgian publication: Lemaître (1927).
[>] “Although your calculations are correct”: Einstein to G. Lemaître at the 1927 Solvay Conference, in Berger (1984).
E. Hubble’s papers measuring the distance to Andromeda: Hubble (1926) and Hubble (1929a).
[>] Hubble and Humason: A fascinating description of working with E. Hubble at Palomar can be found in M. Humason’s AIP interview, in Shapiro (1965).
[>] E. Hubble’s and M. Humason’s back-to-back papers: Humason (1929) and Hubble (1929b).
[>] “I send you a few copies of the paper”: Letter from G. Lemaître to A. Eddington, 1930, reproduced in Nussbaumer and Bieri (2009), p. 123.
[>] “If the world has begun with a single”: Lemaître (1931).
“The notion of a beginning of the present order”: Eddington (1931).
[>] “serious expressions on their faces”: Los Angeles Times, January 11, 1933.
“This is the most beautiful and satisfactory”: A. Einstein about G. Lemaître in Kragh (1996), p. 55.
“World’s Leading Cosmologist”: New York Times, February 19, 1933.
4. COLLAPSING STARS
There are a number of histories of quantum physics. I would pick Kumar (2009) as an excellent up-to-date description of the characters and concepts. The fight and fallout between Eddington and Chandra is beautifully described in Miller (2007) with a personal view (from Chandra) in Chandrasekhar (1983). In Thorne (1994), you can find how their battle fits into the grand narrative. I have not discussed the almost simultaneous discovery of Chandra’s mass limit by E. Stoner and L. Landau, but it is worth having a look at Stoner (1929) and Landau (1932).
Oppenheimer is a truly fascinating character and there are a number of biographies. One of my favorites is the slim, almost personal description of the man in Bernstein (2004), but I have also used the authoritative Bird and Sherwin (2009). Monk (2012) came out as I was finishing this book and is also a wonderful resource.
[>] “the star tends to close itself off from any communication”: Oppenheimer and Snyder (1939).
“As you see, the war is kindly disposed toward me”: K. Schwarzschild letter to A. Einstein in Einstein (2012).
“Schwarzschild’s bent was more practical”: A. Eddington on K. Schwarzschild in Eddington and Schwarzschild (1917).
[>] “I had not expected that one could formulate the exact solution of the problem in such a simple way”: A. Einstein letter to K. Schwarzschild in Einstein (2012).
[>] “When we obtain by mathematical analysis”: Eddington (1959), p. 103.
[>] “It would seem that the star will be in an awkward predicament”: Ibid., p. 172.
“the force of gravitation would be so great”: Ibid., p. 6.
[>] “when we prove a result without understanding it”: Ibid., p. 103.
“By mere exposure to ultraviolet light”: Lenard (1906).
[>] “Certainly one of the earliest motives that I had was to show the world what an Indian could do”: S. Chandrasekhar in Weart (1977).
Chandra and Sommerfeld: Sommerfeld (1923).
[>] “A star of large mass cannot pass into the white dwarf stage”: Chandrasekhar (1935a).
“a reductio ad absurdum” . . . “various accidents may intervene” . . . “I think there should be a law of nature”: Eddington (1935b).
“Now, that clearly shows that”: S. Chandrasekhar on A. Eddington in Chandrasekhar (1983).
[>] “was evidently much handicapped”: P. Bridgeman on J. R. Oppenheimer in Bernstein (2004).
[>] “nim nim boys”: W. Pauli on J. R. Oppenheimer’s group in Regis (1987).
[>] “with his rabid hatred of genuine Socialism” . . . “become like Hitler and Mussolini”: Gorelik (1997).
[>] “a consideration of non-static solutions must be essential”: Oppenheimer and Volkoff (1939).
“The mass would produce so much curvature”: Eddington (1959), p. 6.
[>] N. Bohr and J. Wheeler’s paper: Bohr and Wheeler (1939).
[>] “gravity becomes strong enough to hold in the radiation”: Eddington (1935b).
“For my part I shall only say”: S. Chandrasekhar on A. Eddington in Chandrasekhar (1983).
A. Einstein’s mistaken attempt to get rid of the Schwarzschild solution: Einstein (1939).
5. COMPLETELY CUCKOO
The creation of, and life at, the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton is described in some detail in Regis (1987), and Einstein and Oppenheimer’s relationship and times can be found in Schweber (2008). A fascinating and articulate description of Gödel’s role in general relativity and his interaction with Einstein is in Yourgrau (2005), and a beautifully crafted novel about Gödel and Turing is Levin (2010). A wonderful graphic novel on the history of twentieth-century logic is Doxiadis and Papadimitriou (2009). If you want to understand a bit more about Einstein’s failed quest for unification from a modern point of view, you should read Weinberg (2009).
For the German context of Einstein’s work, and general relativity specifically, I have relied on Fölsing (1998), Wazek (2010), and Cornwell (2004). The Soviet context is far trickier, and while my starting point was Graham (1993) and Vucinich (2001), information has really begun to flow out of the Soviet archives that questions some of the Western views of what was going on during that period. I have relied heavily on my colleague Dr. Andrei Starinets and his translation of archival material of the time, but a book about Landau’s times, which I eagerly await in translation, is Gorobets (2008). The stagnation of general relativity in the United States can be pieced together from Thorne (1994), DeWitt-Morette (2011), and Wheeler and Ford (1998).
[>] “The ideal world is nothing else than the material world”: Marx (1990).
[>] The private letters to Beria: ЦХСД. ф.4. Оп.9. Д.1487. Л.5–7. Копия. CDMD (Central Depository of Modern Documents of the Russian Federation Archives) and ЦХСД. Ф.4. Оп.9. Д.1487. Л. 11–11 об. Копия. CDMD (Central Depository of Modern Documents of the Russian Federation Archives).
[>] “Einstein on Verge of Great Discovery”: New York Times, November 4, 1928.
“Einstein Is Amazed at Stir Over Theory”: New York Times, February 4, 1929.
[>] “New Einstein Theory Gives a Master Key to the Universe”: New York Times, December 27, 1949.
“Einstein Offers New Theory”: New York Times, March 30, 1953.
[>] “a wonderful piece of Earth”: A. Einstein letter to Queen of Belgium, 1933, kept in the Albert Einstein Archives at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, in Fölsing (1998), p. 679.
“just for the privilege of walking home”: A. Einstein on K. Gödel in Yourgrau (2005), p. 6.
[>] K. Gödel’s solution: Gödel (1949).
[>] “an important contribution”: A. Einstein on Gödel’s solution in Schilpp (1949).
“Princeton is a madhouse”: J. R. Oppenheimer to his brother in Schweber (2008), p. 265.
“Oppenheimer has made no contribution”: W. Pauli and A. Einstein on Oppenheimer in Schweber (2008), p. 271.
“The guest list at Oppie’s”: Time magazine, November 8, 1948.
[>] “the general theory of relativity is one of the least promising”: F. Dyson letter, 1948, in Schweber (2008), p. 272.
“gravitation and fundamental theory”: S. Goudsmit in DeWitt-Morette (2011).
[>] “persistent campaign to reverse US Military Policy”: Fortune, May 1953, in Schweber (2009), p. 181.
“We find that Dr. Oppenheimer’s continuing conduct”: Bernstein (2004).
“Einstein Warns World”: the New York Post, February 13, 1950.
[>] “What ought the minority of intellectuals
do against”: A. Einstein in the New York Times, June 12, 1953.
“Einstein was a physicist, a natural philosopher”: J. R. Oppenheimer lecture, 1965, in Schweber (2008), p. 277.
“in the close-knit fraternity”: in Time magazine, November 8, 1948.
[>] “During the end of his life”: J. R. Oppenheimer in L’Express, December 20, 1965.
6. RADIO DAYS
Radio astronomy and how it ended up fueling general relativity is well told in Munns (2012) and in Thorne (1994). Hoyle is a larger-than-life character, and it is definitely worth reading his autobiography, Hoyle (1994), but also the two substantial biographies, Gregory (2005) and Minton (2011). The AIP interview with Gold, Weart (1978), is very enlightening, and Kragh (1996) does an exhaustive job of mapping out the conflict with Ryle. I highly recommend reading Jansky (1933) and Reber (1940) to see how a field is discovered.
[>] “These theories were based on the hypothesis”: F. Hoyle in BBC Radio broadcast, 1949.
[>] “a feeling that he had gone far”: R. Williamson on F. Hoyle on the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, 1951, in Kragh (1996), p. 194.
Eddington’s theory: A. Eddington’s fundamental theory is laid out in gory detail in Eddington (1953).
“Whether or not it will survive”: E. A. Milne on Eddington’s fundamental theory in Kilmister (1994), p. 3.
[>] “complete nonsense: more precisely”: W. Pauli on A. Eddington in Miller (2007), p. 89.
“I was allowed to drift”: Lightman and Brawer (1990), p. 53.
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