Climates of the Geological Past (Köppen and Wegener), 128
cloudiness, in art, 225
coal deposits, Carboniferous, 149–50
cod, 223–24
Columbia Plateau, 92, 101
Columbia River basalts, 92–93
Columbia River, 92–96, 99, 101, 106–7; gorge of, 91
continental drift, 123, 144–46
cores: of coral, 63, 164; of deep sea sediments, 54, 134–35, 138, 165, 167–71, 214; of lake sediments, 164; of trees, 164. See also ice cores
cosmic rays, 220
coulees, 93
Croll, James, 48, 66–88, 67, 115, 120, 124–25, 128, 133–34, 137, 139, 165–66, 219, 228, 243; calculations of Earth’s orbit, 82–83, 83; caretaker at Anderson College, 72–73; Climate and Time in their Geological Relations, 74, 85; early life, 67–73; honors, 85; interest in the nature of heat, electricity and magnetism, 73; The Philosophy of Theism, 72; work on causes of ice ages, 74–77, 81–84
Cuvier, Baron Georges, 28–30
Darwin, Charles: and evidence for ice ages, 15–16; theory of evolution, 38, 42, 190, 192
dating: of glacial deposits, 84, 86, 133, 144; of ice, 175, 179–81; of ocean sediments, 175; radioactive, 55; of volcanic ash, 191. See also Carbon-14, dating
Desmarest, Nicolas, 22–23
diamonds, 2
drift, glacial, 46, 48–49, 52, 55, 141, 151; in India, 141
dropstones, 59, 161
Dryas, 198
Durant, Will, 1
Early Proterozoic Ice Age, 143, 160–61 eccentricity. See orbit, of Earth around sun
Ediacarans, 210
Edwards, Jonathan, 68
El Niño events, 186, 218
Eldredge, Niles, 192
environmental determinism, 1
equinox, 80; precession of, 78
erosion: by glaciers, 13, 61, 127; by glacial floods, 105–6, 108 (see also Channeled Scablands)
erratic boulders, 4–5, 32, 34, 37, 46–49, 47; of Columbia River gorge, 91, 93
Études sur les glaciers (Agassiz). See Studies on Glaciers
Eukaryotes, 209–10
evolution, human, 187–91, 193–97, 199–206
extinction, rate of, 209
Fairbanks, Richard, 63
fjords, 61
Flint, Richard Foster, 102
floods: biblical, 3, 19–20, 48; catastrophic glacial, 89–114; Lake Bonneville, 105–7; on Mars, 111–14; Siberian, 108
fossil fuel, 240
Freedom of Will (Edwards), 68
French revolution, 223
Geikie, Archibald, 74, 85
genetic diversity, within species, 207–8
Geological Society of London, 16–17
Geological Society of Washington, D.C., 96
geology: heroic period of, 16–17; and religion, 18–21
Gilbert, G. K., 105–7
glacial periods, 9, 82, 240; beginning of, 232; end of, 174; next, 233, 242–43
glaciers: cores in, 12; definition, 10; flow of, 39, 49–51, 50, 146–47; layering in, 176; materials preserved in, 11–12; mountain, 2, 4, 10; in the tropics, 7, 142, 151–53, 155
Glasgow, 72–73
global warming, 155, 213, 233, 243
Glomar Challenger, 170
Gondwanaland, 145–50, 238
Gould, Stephen Jay, 192
gradualism, 94
Grand Coulee, 98, 102, 105
grasshopper, European populations of, 207–8
grasslands, expansion of, 181, 194
great apes, 188
greenhouse effect, 157, 159, 238–40, 243
greenhouse gases, 155, 161, 165, 174, 231, 233, 240. See also carbon dioxide; methane; water vapor
Greenland ice sheet, 1–3, 16, 129, 149, 177, 230, 243
Grissino-Mayer, Henri, 226–7
Gulf Stream, 83, 109–10, 228–29
Halifax (Canada), 41
Hays, James, 138–39
Himalayas, 238–40
Hoffman, Paul, 154–55
hominids, 188–91; fossil record of, 193, 196
Homo erectus, 202–3, 206
Homo rudolfensis, 201
Homo sapiens, 190, 193, 199, 203–4, 206
Hudson Bay, 109–10
Hudson River, 62
Humboldt, Alexander von, 29–31
Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 122
Hutton, James, 23
ice age climate, 203; of Africa, 189, 194–95, 201; deduced from Vostok ice core, 181; and human civilization, 213–31; inferred from plankton, 168. See also climate; Pleistocene Ice Age
ice age theory, debate over, 3–5, 15, 24, 35–37, 39, 45–46, 58, 84
ice ages: ancient, 142–43; astronomical theory of, 69, 84, 87, 120, 131, 133, 233; causes of, 65–66, 232–3; current, 8, 141, 147; cycles of, 9, 46, 65–66, 84, 115–40, 163, 169–70, 233 (see also glacial periods; interglacial periods; Pleistocene Ice Age); definition of, 6, 9; Earth’s major, 143; role of feedback in, 129, 159. See also Archean Ice Age; Early Proterozoic Ice Age; Late Proterozoic Ice Age; Permo-Carboniferous Ice Age; Pleistocene Ice Age; Snowball Earth
ice cores, 12, 175–86, 197–99, 233; Antarctic, 164, 177–83; bubbles in, 12 (see also air bubbles); dust in, 179–81, 199; Greenland, 164, 175, 177, 181, 199, 205, 215–16, 228–30; layers in, 12, 179, 181; from mountain glaciers, 164, 183–86; from Mt. Kilimanjaro, 185–86; in tropical glaciers, 184–86; volcanic ash in, 12, 178, 181. See also Vostok ice core
ice field, definition, 10
ice sheets, volume of continental, 174–75
Iceman, the alpine, 11
Imbrie, John, 138–39
insolation, 75, 122, 126, 129, 139
interglacial periods, 9, 54–55, 82, 242;
current, 7–8, 212, 242; last, 240
International Geophysical Year, 176
JOIDES Resolution, 170
Jura Mountains, 46, 48
juvenilization, 196
Kilimanjaro, Mount, glaciers on, 7–8, 183, 186
Kirschvink, Joe, 153–55
Köppen, Wladimir, 123–29; Climates of the Geological Past (with Wegener), 128
Kullenberg, Börje, 168
Kwaday Dan Sinchi (“Long Ago Man Found”), 11
L’Anse aux Meadows (Newfoundland), 216
lakes, glacial, 56
land bridge, 64, 204
landforms, glacial, 4, 22, 32–34, 39–40; drumlins, 53; eskers, 52; glacial polish, 56; grooves and scratches 13, 34, 42, 56–58, 141, 143, 148, 151, 161–63, 162; linear ridges, 14. See also drift, glacial; erratic boulders; moraines
Laplace, Pierre-Simon, 77
Late Paleozoic Ice Age. See Permo-Carboniferous Ice Age
Late Proterozoic Ice Age, 150–60, 210; multiple episodes of, 158. See also Snowball Earth
latitude, equivalent, 125, 126
Libby, Willard, 132–33
limestone, 155; and CO2, 237–38
Lisbon earthquake, 47
Little Ice Age, 38, 215–27, 230
loess, 45, 60–61, 181; of the Channeled Scablands, 92–93, 95–97
Long Ago Man Found, 11
Lyell, Charles, 75
Mackenzie River, 109
magnetic field (Earth): nature of, 147–48; orientation preserved in rocks, 134–35, 148, 151–53, 161; reversals of, 134–35; reversal timescale, 138
magnetic field (Sun), 220
mammoths, 64; Siberian, 36–37
maps, of glacial features, 46, 52, 84
Mars Global Surveyor, 112
Mars: chaotic terrain, 113–14; current conditions on, 111; evidence for catastrophic floods, 111–14; temperatures
on, 123
A Mathematical Theory of the Thermal Phenomena Produced by Solar Radiation (Milankovitch), 122
Mayan civilization, 214
Mayr, Ernst, 191–92
Medieval Warm Period, 215–16, 219, 221, 223, 227
methane: as a greenhouse gas, 159–60, 241–42, 233–34; hydrate, 24
1–42, 244
Milankovitch, Milutin, 87–88, 131, 133, 139, 186, 195, 219; A Mathematical Theory of the Thermal Phenomena Produced by Solar Radiation, 122; Canon of Insolation and the Ice Age Problem, 130; doctoral thesis of, 117–18; education, 115–18; engineering work, 118; military service, 116–17; prisoner of war, 121–22; at University of Belgrade, 118–20
Mississippi River, 109–10
Missoula, glacial Lake, 99–105, 101
monsoon, Indian, 239–40
moraine, 33–34, 39, 49, 50, 52; lateral, 49, 50, 51; medial, 49–50, 50; soil development on, 51, 54; terminal, 2, 49, 51
Mosley-Thompson, Ellen, 183
Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, 44
Namibia, 154–55
Neptunists, 23–24
Neuberger, Hans, 225
Neuchâtel, 26–27, 30–32, 34, 36, 39–41
Niagara Falls, 87, 98
Niagara River, 87
North Atlantic Ocean, 219, 228–30
North Atlantic Oscillation, 218–19, 230
North Pole, 52, 78–80, 212
O’Brien, Eileen, 202–3
ocean circulation. See Gulf Stream; ocean currents
ocean currents, 82–83, 109–10, 169, 218–19, 228. See also Gulf Stream
Ocean Drilling Project, 107, 170–71
ocean temperature, past, 171–72
oceanography, 166–67
Older Dryas, 198
orbit, of Earth around sun, 75–80, 76, 139; eccentricity of, 76–81, 76, 83, 86, 120–21, 173, 175, 243
Oxygen isotopes, 135–36; determining seawater temperature from, 135–36, 139, 172–73; in fossil shells, 135–38, 171–73; of seawater, 173
oxygen, concentration in atmosphere, 154
Paranthropus, 193
Pardee, Joe, 99–100, 102
Penck, Albrecht, 127–28, 132
Penny Magazine, 69–70
Penrose Medal, 105
Permo-Carboniferous Ice Age, 144–50, 209, 236, 238
Philosophical Magazine, 73, 81, 85
Philosophy of Theism (Croll), 72
photosynthesis, 155–57, 235–36, 240
Pinatubo, Mt., 230
piston corer, Kullenberg, 168–69
plague, bubonic, 221–22
plankton, 157, 166–68, 237; and water temperature, 168
plate tectonics, 66, 146
Pleistocene Ice Age, 9, 52, 142, 240–41, 244; beginning of, 188–89, 238; climate of, 187, 189; extent of glaciers during, 52–53, 147; and human evolution, 187–89, 193–206; multiple cycles of, 45–46, 53–55, 60, 63–64, 82, 141–42, 164, 178, 188, 194–95, 205, 207, 213, 233, 243 (see also glacial periods; interglacial periods). See also climate; ice age climate; ice ages
polynya, 210
Potholes waterfall, 91
primates, 188
Principles of Geology (Lyell), 75
Proterozoic eon, 150
proxy, 219–20; geochemical, 172–74, 181, 185, 215, 216, 220
Puget Sound, 90
punctuated equilibrium, 192–93
Pyrenees, 208
Quelccaya glacier, 184
Raeburn, Sir Henry, 226
raised beaches, 62
rapid terminations (of glacial periods), 180, 182, 194
rebound, of Earth’s crust, 62
reflecting power, of snow and ice, 83, 129–30, 159, 244
refugia, 210
Révolutions de la mer (Adhémar), 77
ripple marks, giant: near glacial Lake Missoula, 100, 102; in Channeled Scablands, 104–5
rock flour, glacial, 56, 59
rock magnetism. See magnetic field (Earth)
Royal Society (London), 17, 166
Sacred Theory of the Earth, The (Burnet), 20
sand and gravel deposits, glacial, 55–56
scablands, 89–92. See also Channeled Scablands
Schimper, Karl, 4, 34
science and religion, 17–21
science, progress of, 5
sea level: glacially lowered, 62–64; rising, 63–64, 165
Sedgwick, Adam, 23
Shackleton, Nick, 138–39
The Skin of Our Teeth (Wilder), 187
Snake River, 92, 95–96, 98–99, 106
snow line, 129–30
Snowball Earth, 150–60, 208–11, 241
Snows of Kilimanjaro, The (Hemingway), 7
solar activity, 219–21, 230
solar cycle, 219
solar energy, received on Earth. See insolation
solar flares, 219
solstice: summer, 78, 80; winter, 78, 80
South Africa, evidence for glaciation of, 161–63
South Pole, 146, 148, 150
St. Lawrence River, 109–10
Stanley, Steven, 190, 195–96, 206
Stradivarius (violins) 226–27
Studies on Glaciers (Agassiz), 34, 36, 39, 52
Sumbawa, Island of, 231
sunspots, 220
superfloods. See floods, catastrophic glacial
supergreenhouse, 157, 160, 210, 235
superposition, principle of, 53
Swedish Deep Sea Expedition, 168–69
temperature, on Earth: changes in, 124; relationship to solar radiation, 121–22
terrestrial imperative, the, 195–96, 206
Thompson, Charles Wyville, 166
Thompson, Lonnie, 183–86
Tibetan Plateau, 238–39
tillite, 141–43, 148, 153, 161–63
tool making, human, 189–90, 196, 201, 204; See also Acheulean hand axe
tsunami, 47
turbidity currents, 107
Two-Mile Time Machine, The (Alley), 175
Tyndall, John, correspondence with James Croll, 74
Urey, Harold, 135–36
valley: U-shaped glacial, 61; hanging glacial, 61
van Donk, J., 137–38
varves, 58–59, 161
vascular plants, 236
Venetz, Ignatz, 32–35, 37
Venus, 235, 237
Vienna, 116–18
Vikings, 216, 223
volcanic ash, 193; hominid footprints in, 190–91
volcanism, as source of CO2, 155–56, 236, 238
Vostok ice core, 179–82, 180
Vostok Station, Antarctica, 178
Vostok, Lake, 178
Wallula Gap, 101, 103
Washington (state), 89–92, 103
water vapor, as a greenhouse gas, 233–34
waterfalls: extinct, in the Channeled Scablands, 96 (see also Grand Coulee); in Yosemite Valley, 61
weather, 187, 212, 244
weathering, chemical, 156, 158
Wegener, Alfred, 123–24, 129; Climates of the Geological Past (with Köppen), 128; theory of continental drift, 144–46
Werner, Abraham, 22–24
Wilder, Thornton, 187
Yakima River, 103
Younger Dryas, 198–201, 200, 206, 215, 227, 229
Zagreb, 116
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Frozen Earth: The Once and Future Story of Ice Ages Page 29