149. Sioux Tribe of Indians v. United States, 97 Ct. Cl. 613 (1942), cert. denied 318 U.S. 789 (1943).
150. The following is a chronology of the litigation that ensued in the wake of the 1942 case: Sioux Tribe v. United States, 105 Ct. Cl. 658 (1946); Sioux Tribe v. United States, 2 Ind. Cl. Comm. 646 (1954); Sioux Tribe v. United States, 146 F. Supp. 229 (1956); Sioux Tribe v. United States, 161 Ct. Cl. 413, F.2d 378 (1963); Sioux Tribe of Indians v. United States, 182 Ct. Cl. 912 (1968); Sioux Nation v. United States, 23 Ind. Cl. Comm. 358 (1970); Sioux Nation v. United States, 24 Ind. Cl. Comm. 98 (1970); Sioux Nation v. United States, 33 Ind. Cl. Comm. 151 (1974); Sioux Tribe v. United States, 205 Ct. Cl. 148, 500 F.2d 458 (1974); United States v. Sioux Nation, 207 Ct. Cl., 518 F.2d 1298 (1975); cert. denied, 423 U.S. 1016 (1975); Sioux Tribe v. United States, 38 Ind. Cl. Comm. 469 (1976); and Sioux Nation v. United States, 601 F.2d 1157 (1979).
151. Sioux Tribe v. United States, 2 Ind. Cl. Comm. 646 (1954).
152. U.S. Supreme Court, Records and Briefs, “Respondents’ Brief—Brief for the Sioux Nation,” 20 n. 16.
153. Sioux Tribe of Indians v. United States, 146 F. Supp. 229 (1956).
154. U.S. Supreme Court, Records and Briefs, “Respondents’ Brief—Brief for the Sioux Nation,” 21.
155. Ibid., 24–25.
156. Res judicata dictates that a final judgment already rendered by a court of competent jurisdiction on the merits is conclusive as to the rights of the parties and thereby bars any subsequent actions involving the same claim or course of action. (See Black’s Law Dictionary.)
157. 88 St. 1499 (1974).
158. U.S. Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, “Authorize Appropriations for Indian Claims Commission.” Senate Report No. 93–863, 93d Cong., 2d sess. (1974), 5.
159. United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians, 518 F.2d 1298 (207 Ct. Cl. 234) (1975).
160. 423 U.S. 1016 (1975). It had first denied certiorari on April 19, 1943.
161. 92 St. 153 (1978).
162. 299 U.S. 476 (1937).
163. 448 U.S. 371, 408 (1980).
164. 182 Ct. Cl. 543 (1968).
165. Ibid., 553.
166. Vine Deloria Jr., “Beyond the Pale: American Indians and the Constitution,” in Jules Lobel, ed., A Less Than Perfect Union (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1988), 266.
167. 448 U.S. 371, 409 (1980).
168. Louis F. Claiborne, “Oral Arguments” before the Supreme Court, March 25, 1980, reprinted in The Complete Oral Arguments of the Supreme Court of the United States, 1979 Term (Frederick, Md.: University Publications of America, Inc., 1979), 46.
169. Ibid.
170. Arthur Lazarus Jr., “Oral Arguments” before the Supreme Court, March 25, 1980, reprinted in The Complete Oral Arguments of the Supreme Court of the United States, 1979 Term (Frederick, Md.: University Publications of America, Inc., 1979), 35.
171. Ibid., 39.
172. 448 U.S. 371, 409 n. 26 (1980).
173. Deloria, “Reflections on the Black Hills Case,” 265.
174. 430 U.S. 73 (1977).
175. 448 U.S. 371, 413 (1980).
176. Ibid., 414–415.
177. Ibid., 415.
178. Ibid., 417 n. 30.
179. 448 U.S. 371, 421 n. 32 (1980).
180. Ibid.
181. Ibid., 435.
182. Ibid.
183. Ibid.
184. Ibid.
185. Ibid., 436–437.
186. Ibid., 437.
187. 518 F.2d 1298, 1302 (1975).
188. According to Fergus M. Bordewich, Killing the White Man’s Indian: Reinventing Native Americans at the End of the Twentieth Century (New York: Doubleday, 1996), 230.
189. See especially Roxanne D. Ortiz, ed., The Great Sioux Nation (1977); Peter Matthiessen, In the Spirit of Crazy Horse (New York: Penguin Books, 1983); Pommersheim, “The Black Hills Case” (1988); and Deloria, “Reflections on the Black Hills Claim” (1988). See also Pommersheim, “Making all the Difference: Native Testimony and the Black Hills (a review essay),” North Dakota Law Review 69 (1993), 337–359, which is a critical review of Edward Lazarus’s Black Hills/White Justice: The Sioux Nation Versus the United States, 1775 to the Present (1991) and two other books.
CHAPTER 6
1. 102 St. 2285, 2296 (1988); as amended in 105 St. 1278 (1991).
2. Indian Self-Determination Act Amendments of 1994, 108 St. 4250, 4270. This law declared that “it is the policy of this title [Title II—Self-Governance] to permanently establish and implement tribal self-governance” (p. 4271), which is designed, among other things, “to enable the United States to maintain and improve its unique and continuing relationship with, and responsibility to, Indian tribes, . . . to ensure the continuation of the trust responsibility of the United States to Indian tribes and Indian individuals, . . . [and] to permit an orderly transition from Federal domination of programs and services to provide Indian tribes with meaningful authority to plan, conduct, redesign, and administer programs, services, functions, and activities that meet the needs of the individual tribal communities. . . .” (Ibid.)
3. 101 St. 386 (1987).
4. 1 St. 50 (1789).
5. 101 St. 386 (1987).
6. 1 St. 50, 52 (1789).
7. U.S. Senate, Final Report and Legislative Recommendations: A Report of the Special Committee on Investigations of the Select Committee on Indian Affairs, Senate Report No. 101–216, 101st Cong., 1st sess. (1989). Forty-two similar congressional investigations of corruption and mismanagement preceded the 1989 investigation.
8. Robert Dahl, “Decision-Making in a Democracy: The Supreme Court as a National Policy-Maker,” Journal of Public Law 6 (1957): 293.
9. 485 U.S. 660, 672 (1988).
10. 102 St. 130 (1988).
11. As quoted in Francis P. Prucha, ed., Documents of United States Indian Policy, 2d ed. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990), 240–241.
12. Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, 101 St. 1788; Indian Housing Act, 102 St. 676; Education Amendments Act, 102 St. 1603; Indian Financing Act, 102 St. 1763; Indian Self-Determination Act Amendments, 102 St. 2285; Indian Reorganization Act Amendments, 102 St. 2938; Navajo & Hopi Indian Relocation and Amendments Act, 102 St. 3929; and Indian Health Care Act Amendments, 102 St. 4784.
13. Land taken into trust for Pechanga Band of Luiseno Mission Indians, 102 St. 897; Land Claim of Coushatta Tribe of Louisiana, 102 St. 1097; Reservation for Confederated Tribe of Grande Ronde Community of Oregon, 102 St. 1594; and Quinault Reservation Expansion Act, 102 St. 3327.
14. See the Lac Vieux Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians Act, 102 St. 1577.
15. See Economic Development Plan for the Northwestern Shoshone, 102 St. 1575.
16. See Indian Gaming Regulatory Act, 102 St. 2647.
17. See Colorado Ute Indian Water Rights Settlement Act, 102 St. 973.
18. 103 St. 1336 (1989).
19. 104 St. 473 (1990).
20. 104 St. 883 (1990).
21. 104 St. 1292 (1990).
22. 104 St. 3048 (1990).
23. 105 St. 646 (1991).
24. See especially Francis P. Prucha, American Indian Policy in Crisis: Christian Reformers and the Indian, 1865–1900 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1976), and his study The Churches and the Indian Schools: 1888–1912 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979); and Jill E. Martin, “Constitutional Rights and Indian Rites: An Uneasy Balance,” Western Legal History 3 (1990): 245–269.
25. See Prucha, American Indian Policy (1976).
26. Ibid., 57, quoting “Address of the Catholic Clergy. . . .”
27. 24 St. 388 (1887).
28. 43 St. 253 (1924).
29. Vine Deloria Jr., “The Distinctive Status of Indian Rights,” in Peter Iverson, ed., The Plains Indians of the Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1985), 245.
30. 92 St. 469 (1978).
31. Deloria, “The Distinctive Status,” 247.
33. U.S. Congressional Record (1978), 2144.
34. Lyng v. Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Association, 485 U.S. 439, 458 (1988).
35. Letter from Thomas L. McKenney, head of the newly established Bureau of Indian Affairs, to Captain George Gray, an Indian agent, dated January 16, 1826. Source: American State Papers: Documents, Legislative and Executive, of the Congress of the United States, vol. 2, Indian Affairs (Washington: Gales & Seaton, 1834), 707.
36. Cantwell v. Connecticut, 310 U.S. 296, 303 (1939).
37. See, e.g., Sherbert v. Verner, 374 U.S. 398, 403, 406–409 (1963); and Wisconsin v. Yoder, 406 U.S. 205 (1972). “These cases established that the Court will balance the secular interest asserted by the government against the claim of religious liberty asserted by the person affected and only if the governmental interest is compelling and if no alternative forms of regulation would serve that interest is the claimant to be required to yield.” Source: U.S. Senate, Document No. 99–16, The Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and Interpretation. 99th Cong., 1st sess. (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1987), 991. [Note: this document was prepared by Johnny H. Killian, ed. of the Congressional Research Service.]
38. Deloria & Lytle, American Indians, American Justice, 231.
39. U.S. Supreme Court, Records and Briefs, “Brief for the Indian Respondents in Opposition,” 2.
40. Ibid.
41. U.S. Supreme Court, Records and Briefs, “Brief for the Indian Respondents,” 5.
42. Ibid., 6–7.
43. U.S. Supreme Court, Records and Briefs, “Brief for the Petitioners,” 5.
44. Lyng, 485 U.S. 439, 462, Brennan dissent (1988).
45. U.S. Supreme Court, Records and Briefs, “Brief for the Indian Respondents,” 9.
46. 92 St. 469 (1978).
47. U.S., Federal Agencies Task Force, American Indian Religious Freedom Act Report, P.L. 95–341 (August 1979), Appendix A.
48. 485 U.S. 439, 442 (1988).
49. Ibid.
50. U.S., American Indian Religious Freedom Act Report,” 27.
51. 485 U.S. 439, 443 (1988).
52. Ibid.
53. Ibid.
54. California v. Block and Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Association v. Peterson. Vine Deloria Jr. has raised an interesting question regarding exactly who instituted the suit—the Indians or the other groups. “The question is interesting in this respect: if the Indians initiated the suit, their theory of the spiritual value of the lands should have been the primary argument; if not, the secular perspective of the other plaintiffs may have determined the arguments that were used.” (“Trouble in High Places,” 276.)
55. 485 U.S. 439, 443 (1988).
56. Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Association v. Peterson, 565 F. Supp. 586 (1983).
57. Deloria, “Trouble in High Places,” 276.
58. 98 St. 1619 (1984).
59. U.S. House, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, California Wilderness Act of 1983, House Report No. 98–40, 98th Cong., 1st sess. (1983).
60. Deloria, “Trouble in High Places,” 282.
61. Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Association v. Peterson, 795 F.2d 688 (1986).
62. 485 U.S. 439, 445 (1988).
63. Ibid.
64. Ibid., 446.
65. Ibid.
66. Ibid., 447.
67. Ibid., 451–452.
68. 374 U.S. 398, 412 (1963).
69. 485 U.S. 439, 451 (1988).
70. 476 U.S. 693 (1986).
71. Ibid., 696 (1986).
72. 485 U.S. 439, 449 (1988).
73. Ibid., 470 (1988).
74. Ibid., 470–471 (1988).
75. Ibid., 471–472 (1988).
76. Ibid., 450 (1988).
77. Ibid., 465 (1988).
78. Ibid.
79. Ibid., 468 (1988).
80. Ibid., 469 (1988).
81. Ibid., 451 (1988).
82. Ibid., 475–476 (1988).
83. Ibid., 452–453 (1988).
84. Ibid., 476 (1988).
85. Ibid., 454 (1988).
86. Ibid., 455.
87. Ibid., 471 (1988).
88. Ibid., 452 (1988).
89. Ibid., 460 (1988).
90. Ibid., 460–461 (1988).
91. On May 24, 1996, President Clinton issued an executive order to promote accommodation of access to sites considered holy by Indian religious practitioners and to provide additional security for the physical integrity of these sacred sites. However, less than a month later, a federal district court in Bear Lodge Multiple Use Association v. Babbitt undermined these same religious rights when it ruled that the National Park Service could not “voluntarily” ban rock climbers during the month of June to accommodate the religious rights of several tribes whose members hold ceremonies at Devils Tower, Wyoming, a sacred site to the Indians, as well as a national monument. The federal government’s ambivalent attitude toward the religious rights of indigenous peoples continues.
92. Deloria, “Trouble in High Places,” 285.
93. U.S., “Oral Arguments” before the Supreme Court, November 30, 1987, in The Complete Oral Arguments of the Supreme Court of the United States, 1987 Term (Frederick, Md.: University Publications of America, 1987), 17.
94. Ibid., 25.
95. Ibid.
96. David Kairys, With Liberty and Justice for Some: A Critique of the Conservative Supreme Court (New York: The New Press, 1993), 106.
97. Testimony of Vine Deloria Jr., U.S. Congress, Senate, Hearing Before the Select Committee on Indian Affairs, 102d Cong., 2d sess., S. Hearing 102–698 (March 7, 1992), 76.
98. Steve Pavlik, “The U.S. Supreme Court Decision on Peyote in Employment Division v. Smith: A Case Study in the Suppression of Native American Religious Freedom,” Wicazo Sa Review 8 (Fall 1992): 38.
99. Code of Federal Regulations, volume 21, chapter 11, section 1307.31 (1990), 82. At least one federal court ruling, Peyote Way Church of God v. Thornburgh (922 F.2d 1210 [5th Cir.] 1991), has held that the use of peyote and membership in the NAC is limited to Indians who have at least 25% blood quantum and who belong to federally recognized tribes. But see U.S. v. Boyll (724 F. Supp. 1333, 1991), a federal district court decision for the district of New Mexico, which held that peyote use could not be restricted to Indians.
100. See especially People v. Woody, 61 Cal. 2d 716 (1964); Welton LaBarre, The Peyote Cult, 4th ed. (New York: Schocken Books, 1975); and Omer C. Stewart, Peyote: A History (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987).
101. 707 P.2d 1274 (1985).
102. 721 P.2d 445 (1986).
103. 374 U.S. 398 (1963).
104. 450 U.S. 707 (1981).
105. 721 P.2d 445, 449 (1986).
106. 108 S. Ct. 1444 (1988).
107. Ibid., 1452.
108. Ibid., 1454–1455.
109. Ibid., 1455.
110. 763 P.2d 146, 148 (1988).
111. 108 S. Ct. 1445 (1988).
112. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission v. ADAPT, Civ. No. C85-6139-E (D.Or.).
113. U.S. Supreme Court, Records and Briefs, “Brief in Opposition to Petition for Writ of Certiorari,” Craig J. Dorsay, Respondent’s Counsel, 2.
114. Ibid.
115. Richard A. Brisbin Jr., “Justice Antonin Scalia, Constitutional Discourse, and the Legalistic State,” The Western Political Quarterly 44 (December 1991): 1005–1038.
116. W. John Moore, “Great Right Hope,” National Journal 24 (1992), 1659.
117. 110 S. Ct. 1595, 1616 n. 2 (1990).
118. Ibid., 1599.
119. Ibid., 1600.
120. Ibid., 1608.
121. Ibid.
122. Ibid.
123. Ibid., 1602.
124. Ibid., 1609.
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br /> 125. 98 U.S. 145 (1878).
126. People v. Woody, 394 P.2d 813, 820 (1964).
127. Ibid.
128. 374 U.S. 398 (1963).
129. 110 S. Ct. 1595, 1608 (1990).
130. Ibid., 1609.
131. Ibid., 1602.
132. Ibid.
133. 455 U.S. 252 (1982).
134. 401 U.S. 437 (1971).
135. 476 U.S. 693 (1986).
136. 475 U.S. 503 (1986).
137. 110 S. Ct. 1595, 1603 (1990).
138. Ibid.
139. Ibid., 1610.
140. Ibid., 1611.
141. Ibid., 1603.
142. Ibid.
143. Ibid., 1615–1616.
144. Ibid., 1604.
145. Ibid., 1612.
146. Ibid., 1620–1621.
147. Ibid., 1621.
148. Ibid., 1604.
149. Ibid., 1621.
150. Ibid., 1605.
151. Ibid., 1612–1613.
152. Ibid., 1616.
153. Ibid., 1606.
154. Ibid., 1613.
155. Ibid.
156. Ibid., 1614.
157. Ibid., 1616.
158. Ibid., 1618 n. 4.
159. Felix S. Cohen, “Indian Self-Government,” in Lucy Cohen, ed., The Legal Conscience: Selected Papers of Felix S. Cohen (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1960), 314.
160. Linda Greenhouse, “Court Is Urged to Rehear Case on Ritual Drug,” The New York Times, May 11, 1990: 16.
161. For example, the Association on American Indian Affairs, the Native American Rights Fund, the National Congress of American Indians, and various “green” groups.
162. 105 St. 646 (1991).
163. 107 St. 1488 (1993).
164. See S. 1021, “Native American Free Exercise of Religion Act of 1993,” in Senate Hearing, 103–347, Hearing Before the Committee on Indian Affairs, 103d Cong., 1st sess., September 10, 1993 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1994), 4–52.
165. 108 St. 3125.
166. U.S. Congressional Record (May 25, 1993), 56456.
167. Cohen, Handbook of Federal Indian Law, 1992 ed., 117.
168. 24 St. 388 (1887).
169. 45 St. 1185 (1929).
170. 30 St. 717 (1898).
171. 67 St. 588 (1953).
172. 24 F. Cas. 937 (1834).
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