The duel was formally banned by law in Iceland in 1006, six years after the Icelanders had accepted Christianity: see The Saga of Gunnlaug Serpent-tongue, ch. 11.
earl
jarl: Title generally restricted to men of high rank in northern countries (though not in Iceland), who could be independent rulers or subordinate to a king. The title could be inherited, or it could be conferred by a king on a prominent supporter or leader of military forces. The earls of Lade who appear in a number of sagas and tales ruled large sections of northern Norway (and often many southerly areas as well) for several centuries. Another prominent, almost independent, earldom was that of Orkney and Shetland.
east
austur. See directions.
fetch
fylgja: Literally ‘someone that accompanies’, a fetch was a personal spirit which was closely attached to families and individuals, and often symbolized the fate that people were born with. If it appeared to an individual or others close to him or her, it would often signal the impending doom of that person. Fetches could take various forms, sometimes appearing in the shape of an animal. For an example, see The Saga of the People of Vatnsdal, ch. 36. As with most ghosts mentioned in the sagas, Icelandic fetches tended to be corporeal.
fire hall, fire room
eldaskdli, eldbus: In literal terms, the fire room or fire hall was a room or special building (as perhaps at Jarlshof in Shetland) containing a fire, and its primary function was that of a kitchen. Such a definition, however, would be too limited, since the fire hall/fire room was also used for eating, working and sleeping. Indeed, in many cases the words eldhús and eldaskáli seem to have been synonymous with the word skdli meaning the hall of a farm. See Figure 4 in ‘The Farm’.
flokk
flokkur: A short poem, distinguished from a drapa. See also drapa.
follower
hirSmadur: A member of the inner circle of followers that surrounded the Scandinavian kings, a sworn king’s man.
foster-
fostur–, fdstri, fostra: Childen during the saga period were often brought up by foster-parents, who received either payment or support in return from the real parents. Being fostered was therefore somewhat different from being adopted: it was essentially a legal agreement and, more importantly, a form of alliance. Nonetheless, fostered children were seen as being part of the family circle emotionally, and in some cases legally. Relationships and loyalties between foster-kindred could become very strong. See also Introduction, p. xl. It should be noted that the expressions fóstri/ fóstra were also used for people who had the function of looking after, bringing up and teaching the children on the farm.
freed slave
lausingi, leysingi: A slave could be set or bought free, and thus acquired the general status of a free man, although this status was low, since if he/she died with no heir, his/her inheritance would return to the original owner. The children of freed slaves, however, were completely free.
full outlawry
skóggangur: Outlawry for life. One of the terms applied to a man sentenced to full outlawry was skogarmabur, which literally means ‘forest man’, even though in Iceland there was scant possibility of his taking refuge in a forest. Full outlawry simply meant banishment from civilized society, whether the local land district, the province or the whole country. It also meant the confiscation of the outlaw’s property to pay the prosecutor, cover debts and sometimes provide an allowance for the dependants he had left behind. A full outlaw was to be neither fed nor offered shelter. According to one legal codex from Norway, it was ‘as if he were dead’. He had lost all goods, and all rights. Wherever he went he could be killed without any legal redress. His children became illegitimate and his body was to be buried in unconsecrated ground.
games
leikar: Leikur (sing.) in Icelandic contained the same breadth of meaning as ‘game’ in English. The games meetings described in the sagas would probably have included a whole range of ‘play’ activities. Essentially, they involved men’s sports, such as wrestling, ball games, ‘skin-throwing games’, ‘scraper games’ and horse-fights. Games of this kind took place whenever people came together, and seem to have formed a regular feature of assemblies and other gatherings (including the Althing) and religious festivals such as the Winter Nights. Sometimes prominent men invited people together specifically to take part in games.
games meeting
leikmót: Special gatherings where various games took place. These might last for several days, visitors staying in temporary leikskdlar (literally ‘games halls’, also occuring as a place-name in, for example, The Saga of Hrafnkel Frey’s Godi, ch. 3).
ghosts/spirits
draugar, afturgöngur, haugbúar: Ghosts in medieval Scandinavia were seen as being corporeal, and thus capable of wrestling or fighting with opponents. This idea is naturally associated with the ancient pagan belief in Scandinavia and elsewhere that the dead should be buried with the possessions that they were going to need in the next life, such as ships, horses and weapons: in some way, the body was going to live again and need these items. There are many examples in the sagas of people encountering or seeing ‘living ghosts’ inside grave mounds. These spirits were called haugbúar (literally ‘mound-dwellers’). Because of the fear of spirits walking again and disturbing the living, there were various measures that could be taken to ensure some degree of peace and quiet for the living: see, for example, Egil’s Saga, ch. 59, and Gisli Sursson’s Saga, chs. 14 and 17.
giant
jotunn, risi: According to Nordic mythology, the giants (jötnar) had existed from the dawn of time. In many ways, they can be seen as the personification of the more powerful natural elements and the enemies of the gods and mankind. The original belief was that they lived in the distant north and east injotunheim (‘the world of the giants’), where they were eternally planning the eventual overthrow of the gods. The final battle between them, Ragnarok (‘the fate of the gods’), would mark the end of the world. The original giants were clever and devious, and had an even greater knowledge of the world and the future than that which was available to Odin. Risi is a later coinage, when old beliefs were fading and the ancient giants were merging into the troll figure, which was also losing its original characteristics; it refers primarily to the physical size of these beings, which live in the mountains on the borders of civilization.
godi
godi: This word was little known outside Iceland in early Christian times, and seems to refer to a particularly Icelandic concept. A godi was a local chieftain who had legal and administrative responsibilities in Iceland. The name seems to have originally meant ‘priest’, or at least a person having a special relationship with gods or supernatural powers, and thus shows an early connection between religious and secular power. As time went on, however, the chief function of a godi came to be secular. The first godis were chosen from the leading families who settled Iceland in c. 870–930. See Introduction, pp. xlvii and ‘Social and Political Structure’.
godord
godord: The authority and rank of a godi, including his social and legal responsibilities towards his thingmen.
halberd
atgeir: Atgeir is translated as halberd, which it seems to have resembled even though no specimens of this combination of spear and axe have been found in archaeological excavations in Iceland.
hall
skáli: Skálli was used both for large halls such as those used by kings, and for the main farmhouse on the typical Icelandic farm. (See illustrations in ‘The Farm’.)
hand
spönn: A measurement, originally the width of a man’s hand (approximately 16–17 cm).
hayfield
tún: An enclosed field for hay cultivation close to or surrounding a farm house. This was the only ‘cultivated’ part of a farm and produced the best hay. Other hay, generally of lesser quality, came from the meadows which could be a good distance from the farm itself. (See Figure 3 in ‘The Farm’.)
hayfield wall
túngardur: A wall of stones surrounding the hayfield in order to protect the haystacks from the livestock.
haystack wall/yard
stakkgarður: A small enclosed yard to protect the haystacks from the livestock.
hersir
hersir: A local leader in western and northern Norway; his rank was hereditary. Originally the hersirs were probably those who took command when the men of the district were called to arms.
high seat
öndvegi: The central section of one bench in the hall (at the inner end, or in the middle of the ‘senior’ side, to the right as one entered) was the rightful high seat of the owner of the farm. Even though it is usually referred to in English as the ‘high seat’, this position was not necessarily higher in elevation, only in honour. Opposite the owner sat the guest of honour.
high-seat pillars
öndvegissúlur: The high seat was often adorned with decorated high-seat pillars, which had a religious significance. There are several accounts of how those emigrating from Norway to Iceland took their high-seat pillars with them. As they approached land they threw the carved wood posts overboard. It was believed that the pillars would be guided by divine forces to the place where the travellers were destined to live. See, for example, The Saga of the People of Laxardal, ch. 3.
homespun (cloth)
vaimdl: For centuries wool and woollen products were Iceland’s chief exports, especially in the form of strong and durable homespun cloth. It could be bought and sold in bolts or made up into items such as homespun cloaks. There were strict regulations on homespun, as it was used as a standard exchange product and often referred to in ounces, meaning its equivalent value expressed as a weight in silver. One ounce could equal three to six ells of homespun, one ell being roughly 50 cm.
homespun cloak
vararfeldur: A cloak made of homespun, woven from wool with a shaggy exterior like sheepskin.
horse-fight
hestaatjhestavig: A popular sport among the Icelanders, which seems to have taken place especially in the autumn, particularly at Autumn Meetings. Two horses were goaded to fight against each other, until one was killed or ran away. Understandably, emotions ran high, and horse-fights commonly led to feuds.
hundred
bundrad: A ‘long hundred’ or one hundred and twenty. The expression, however, rarely refers to an accurate number, rather a generalized ‘round’ figure.
judgement circle
dómhringur: The courts of heathen times appear to have been surrounded by a judgement circle, marked out with hazel poles and ropes, where judgements were made or announced: see the description of the Gula Assembly in Egil’s Saga, ch.57. The circle was sacrosanct, and weapons were not allowed inside it – nor was violence.
knorr
knorr: An ocean-going cargo vessel: see also ‘Ships’.
lampoon
nii: In the sagas nii refers to two forms of slander that need to be distinguished. The verbal form lampoon commonly was slanderous verse containing hints of lack of masculinity or deviant sexual practices. Such verses obviously spread like wildfire, and were capable of doing great damage to a person’s honour and respect. Insults of this kind were not only illegal; they also tended to start or escalate serious feuds because of the element of dishonour. As the eddic poem Hdvamdl (The Sayings of the High One) states, ‘the tongue is the slayer of the head’ (tunga er höfuð bani’): Hávamál, st. 73. For the other form of níð, see scorn-pole.
Law Council
Lögrétta: The legislative assembly at the Althing. See also Introduction, pp. xlvi–xlvii and ‘Social and Political Structure’.
Law Rock
Lögberg: The raised spot at the Althing at Thingvellir, where the Lawspeaker may have recited the law code, and where public announcements and speeches were made. See also Introduction, pp. xlvi–xlvii and ‘Social and Political Structure’.
Lawspeaker
logsogumadur, logmadur: means literally ‘the man who recites the law’, referring to the time before the advent of writing when the Lawspeaker had to learn the law by heart and recite one-third of it every year, perhaps at the Law Rock. If he was unsure about the text, he had to consult a team of five or more ‘lawmen’ (lögmenn) who knew the law well. The Lawspeaker presided over the assembly at the Althing and was responsible for the preservation and clarification of legal tradition. He could exert influence, as in the case about whether the Icelanders should accept Christianity, but should not be regarded as having ruled the country. See also Introduction, pp. xlvi-xlvii and ‘Social and Political Structure.’
leather (sleeping) sack
hiiifat: A large leather bag used by travellers for sleeping.
lesser outlawry
jjorbaugsgariur: Differed from full or greater outlawry in that the lesser outlaw was only banished from society for three years. Furthermore, his land was not confiscated, and money was put aside to support his family. This made it possible for him to return later and continue a normal life. Fjörbaugsgarður means literally ‘life-ring enclosure’. ‘Life-ring’ refers to the silver ring that the outlaw originally had to pay the godi in order to spare his life. (This was later fixed at a value of one mark.) ‘Enclosure’ refers to three sacrosanct homes no more than one day’s journey from each other where the outlaw was permitted to stay while he arranged passage out of Iceland. He was allowed limited movement along the tracks directly joining these farms, and en route to the ship which would take him abroad. Anywhere else the outlaw was fair game and could be killed without redress. He had to leave the country and begin his sentence within the space of three summers after the verdict, but once abroad retained normal rights.
longhouse
skáli: See hall.
longship
langskip: The largest warship. See also ‘Ships’.
magic rite
seidur: The exact nature of magic ritual, or seidur, is somewhat obscure. It appears that it was originally only practised by women. Although there are several accounts of males who performed this rite (including the god Odin), they are almost always looked down on as having engaged in an ‘effeminate’ activity. The magic rite seems to have had two main purposes: a spell to influence people or the elements (as in The Saga of the People of Laxardal, chs. 35–7, and Gisli Sursson’s Saga, ch. 18), and a means of finding out about the future (as in Eirik the Red’s Saga, ch. 4). There are evidently parallels between seidur and shamanistic rituals such as those carried out by the Lapps and Native Americans. See also seeress.
magician
seidmadur: Literally means ‘a man who practises seiSur’. See also magic rite.
main room
stofa: A room off the hall of a farmhouse. See also ‘The Farm’.
mark
mörk: A measurement of weight, eight ounces, approximately 214 grams.
Moving Days
fardagar: Four successive days in the seventh week of ‘summer’ (in May) during which householders in Iceland could change their abode.
nature spirit
vattur: There were various kinds of nature spirits that the Icelanders (and other Scandinavians) believed in, and sometimes gave sacrifices to. There are early references to elves (dlfar) in mainland Scandinavia. Like their modern-day equivalents, the ‘hidden people’ (a generic expression used in both Norway and Iceland), were of human size. Even closer to nature were the guardian spirits (landvœttir), which inhabited the landscape. The well-being of the inhabitants of the country depended on their welfare and support, as can be seen in Egil s Saga, ch. 58, when Egil raises a scorn-pole facing the guardian spirits of Norway. According to the earliest Icelandic law, Ulfljot’s Law, people approaching Iceland by sea had to remove the dragon heads from the prows of their ships to avoid frightening the guardian spirits.
neighbour
búi: In a legal context, neighbour often has a formal meaning: people who were called on to ‘witness’ the testimony of princapl fi
gures in a case, and form a panel.
north
noriur. See directions.
ounce, ounces
eyrir, pl. aurar: A unit of weight, varying slightly through time, but roughly 27 grams. Eight ounces were equal to one mark.
outlawry
útlegS, skoggangur, fjijrbaugsgariur: Two of the Icelandic words, utlegd, literally meaning ‘lying, or sleeping, outside’, and skóggangur, ‘forest-walking’, stress the idea of the outlaw having been ejected from the safe boundaries of civilized society and being forced to live in the wild, alongside the animals and nature spirits, little better than an animal himself. The word útlagi (‘outlaw’) is closely related to útlegð, but has also taken on the additional meaning of ‘outside the law’, which for early Scandinavians was synonymous with ‘lying outside society’. Law was what made society. See also full outlawry and lesser outlawry.
panel
kviður: The panel was a form of ‘jury’ that delivered a verdict on the facts, motives and/or circumstances behind a case. They were not as important as witnesses, but could still carry a great deal of weight, especially if there were no witnesses to a particular action. The panels were composed of neighbours. Nine-man panels were called for more serious cases; five-man for less important ones. The verdict was based on the majority’s decision.
The Sagas of the Icelanders Page 98