Web Of Deceit: Britain's Real Foreign Policy

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Web Of Deceit: Britain's Real Foreign Policy Page 51

by Mark Curtis


  13 The single-ideology totalitarian state

  1. Richard Norton-Taylor and Rob Evans, ‘US sees no change in British policies’, Guardian, 19 November 1999

  2. Andrew Marr, Ruling Britannia: The failure and future of British democracy, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1996, pp. 109, 115

  3. Philip Crowson, Tudor foreign policy, A and C Black, London, 1973, p. 36

  4. Cited in Jack Lively and Adam Lively (eds.), Democracy in Britain: A reader, Blackwell, Oxford, 1994, pp. 33, 52, 56–7

  5. Lucy Ward, ‘“President Blair” killed Cabinet, says Mowlam’, Guardian, 17 November 2001; Keith Sutherland, ‘Introduction: Bagehot revisited’, in Sutherland (ed.), The rape of the constitution?, Imprint Academic, London, 2000, p. 2

  6. Tony Benn, ‘How democratic is Britain?’, in Sutherland (ed.), p. 34

  7. Sutherland, ‘Introduction’, p. 14

  8. Cited in Benn, ‘How democratic is Britain?’, p. 46

  9. Cited in Eccleshall (ed.), British liberalism: Political thought from the 1640s to the 1980s, Longman, London, 1986, pp. 33, 162, 165

  10. Ibid., pp. 11, 33, 81–2, 145–7, 162, 165

  11. Cited in Rodney Barker, Political ideas in modern Britain: In and after the 20th century, Routledge, London, 1997, p. 112

  12. Ibid., pp. 146–7

  13. Cited in Jonathan Freedland, ‘Ten steps to the revolution’, in Sutherland (ed.), p. 63

  14. Eric Hobsbawm, Industry and empire, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1990, p. 274; Alan Travis, ‘How gap between rich and poor has grown’, Guardian, 11 May 2000; Julian Le Grand, ‘How to cage the fat cats’, New Statesman, 26 July 1999

  15. Cited in Edward Herman, Beyond hypocrisy: Decoding the news in an age of propaganda, South End Press, Boston, 1992, p. 17

  16. David Ramsbottom, ‘Front lines and deadlines’, Guardian, 11 February 1991

  17. Cited in John Pilger, ‘Censorship by omission’, in Hammond and Herman (eds), p. 132

  18. W. Strang to T. Lloyd, 21 June 1952, BDEE, Ser. A, Vol. 3, Part I, pp. 13–19

  19. Dorril, MI6, p. 766

  20. Richard Norton-Taylor, Truth is a difficult concept, pp. 15, 23–6, 37, 86, 91, 96–7, 149, 177, 181, 209

  Part III Exposing the secret history

  14 Overthrowing the government of Iran

  1. Cited in Kermit Roosevelt, Countercoup: The struggle for the control of Iran, McGraw Hill, London, 1979, p. 207

  2. Roosevelt; C. M. Woodhouse, Something ventured, Granada, London, 1982.

  3. D. Fergusson to R. Stokes, 3 October 1951, PRO, FO 371/919599; W. Roger Louis, The British empire in the Middle East, p. 682.

  4. D. Fergusson to R. Stokes, 3 October 1951, PRO, FO 371/91599

  5. F. Shepherd to O. Franks, 2 October 1951, PRO, FO 371/91464

  6. Homa Katouzian, Musaddiq and the struggle for power in Iran, I. B. Tauris and Co, London, 1990, p. 139; Barry Rubin, Paved with good intentions: The American experience and Iran, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1980, p. 67; cited in Dorril, MI6, p. 560

  7. G. Middleton to A. Eden, 25 February 1952, PRO, FO 248/1531; F. Shepherd to H. Morrison, 15 March 1951, PRO, FO 371/91454; Louis, The British Empire, p. 653; Memoranda by S. Falle, 2 August 1952 and 4 August 1952, PRO, FO 248/1531

  8. Katouzian, p. 144

  9. F. Shepherd to Foreign Office, 26 January 1952, PRO, FO 248/1531; Foreign Office memorandum, ‘Persia: The State Department’s views’, 16 April 1952, PRO, FO 371/98688

  10. Chiefs of Staff Committee, Confidential annex to COS (51), 16 May 1951, PRO, FO 371/91460

  11. E. Berthoud to R. Bowker, 15 June 1951, PRO, FO 371/91548; Fakhreddin Azimi, Iran: The crisis of democracy, 1941–1953, I. B. Tauris and Co, London, 1989; pp. 264–5

  12. A. Eden, ‘Persia: memorandum by the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs’, 5 August 1952, PRO, CAB 129/54/CP(52) 276; R. Bowker to Prime Minister, 2 September 1951, PRO, FO 371/91463; Azimi, p. 251; R. Bowker to Prime Minister, 2 September 1951, PRO, FO 371/91463

  13. H. Morrison, ‘Persia’, 20 July 1951, PRO, CAB 129/46/CP(51) 212

  14. Memorandum by G. Furlonge, 24 May 1951, PRO, FO 371/91460; Louis, p. 676

  15. Brian Lapping, End of Empire, Paladin, London, p. 303; Prime Minister to Foreign Secretary, 17 June 1952, PRO, FO 371/98600

  16. A. Eden, ‘Persia’, 5 August 1952, PRO, CAB 129/54/CP(52) 276; Lapping, p. 266; Azimi, Iran, p. 262; F. Shepherd to W. Strang, 11 September 1951, PRO, FO 371/91463; Tehran to Foreign Office, 26 September 1951, PRO, FO 371/91464; G. Wheeler to R. Bowker, 29 October 1951, PRO, FO 371/91464; Memorandum to E. Berthoud, 2 November 1951, PRO, FO 371/91609

  17. Tehran to Foreign Office, 26 January 1952, PRO, FO 371/98684

  18. F. Shepherd to H. Morrison, 21 May 1951, PRO, FO 371/91459

  19. Foreign Office memorandum, ‘Sir F. Shepherd’s analysis of the Persian situation’, 28 January 1952, PRO, FO 371/98684

  20. Dorril, MI6, p. 575

  21. G. Middleton to Foreign Office, 5 March 1992, PRO, FO 248/1531; Memorandum by Dr Zaehner, 17 May 1952, PO, FO 248/1531; Memorandum by Pyman, 17 April 1952; PRO, FO 248/1531; Tehran to Foreign Office, 28 July 1952, CAB 129/54/CP(52)/275

  22. G. Middleton to Foreign Office, 7 August 1952, PRO, FO 248/1531

  23. Lapping, pp. 269–270; Rubin, Paved with good intentions, p. 77; Woodhouse, Something ventured, p. 118

  24. Rubin, Paved with good intentions, p. 78; Woodhouse, p. 124

  25. Katouzian, pp. 183–4; Azimi, p. 320; Roosevelt, pp. 1, 146–55; Lapping, p. 271

  26. Dorril, MI6, p. 589

  27. Blum, The CIA: A forgotten history, Zed, London, 1986, p. 72; Rubin, p. 82; Lapping, pp. 268–274; Azimi, p. 331

  28. Katouzian, p. 190; Blum, p. 73

  29. Sephehr Zabih, The Mossadegh era: Roots of the Iranian revolution, Lake View Press, Chicago, 1982, pp. 140–2, pp. 14–2; Woodhouse, p. 138

  30. Foreign Office to Washington, 8 June 1951, PRO FO 371/91459

  31. G. Middleton to A. Eden, 23 September 1952, PRO, FO 248/1531; US embassy Tehran despatch, 19 May 1953, PRO, FO 371/104566

  32. Blum, The CIA, p. 70; Azimi, Iran, pp. 331–41

  33. Memorandum by S. Falle, 4 August 1952, PRO, FO 248/1531

  34. Dorril, MI6, p. 583

  35. Blum, The CIA, p. 76; Rubin, pp. 177–8; Gabriel Kolko, Confronting the Third World: United States foreign policy, 1945–1980, Pantheon, New York, 1988, p. 265

  36. Anthony Cavendish, Inside intelligence, Collins, London, 1990, p. viii

  37. Bloch and Fitzgerald, pp. 44, 113

  38. Cavendish, Inside intelligence, p. 141

  39. Dorril, MI6, pp. 654, 744; Blum, The CIA, p. 76; Bloch and Fitzgerald, p. 44

  40. Farhad Kazemi, Poverty and revolution in Iran: The migrant poor, urban marginality and politics, New York University Press, New York, 1980, pp. 51, 90

  15 Deterring development in Kenya

  1. David Gough, ‘Mau Mau will sue Britain for human rights abuses’, Guardian, 29 April 1999

  2. J. Whyatt to P. Rogers, 2 September 1952, PRO CO 822/437; The Corfield report, ‘Historical survey of the origins and growth of Mau Mau’, PRO, CO, 822/1222

  3. David Maughan-Brown, Land, freedom and fiction: History and ideology in Kenya, Zed, London, 1985, pp. 47, 49, 31

  4. Intel no. 228, 17 October 1952, PRO, CO 822/462

  5. Maughan-Brown, Land, freedom and fiction, pp. 29, 185; Arthur Hazlewood, The economy of Kenya: The Kenyatta era, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1979, p. 7

  6. E. Baring to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 21 November 1955, PRO, CO 822/937

  7. Cited in the Corfield report, Ch. XVI, p. 1; Maughan-Brown, Land, freedom and fiction, pp. 93–7

  8. Tabitha Tanogo, Squatters and the roots of Mau Mau, 1905–63, James Currey, London, 1987, pp. 150, 126; 2; Maughan-Brown, Land, freedom and fiction, pp. 24, 67

  9. ‘A memorandum on the economic, political, educational and social aspects of the African in Kenya colony by the Kenya
African Union’, undated (1947), PRO, CO 533/534/11

  10. Deputy Governor to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 19 March 1945, PRO, CO 533/534/11

  11. Speech, 30 November 1946, PRO, CO 533/549/2

  12. Cited in Lapping, p. 469

  13. Maughan-Brown, p. 36; E. Baring to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 15 October 1952 and 17 October 1952, PRO, CO 822/444

  14. E. Baring to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 9 October 1952, PRO, CO 822/444

  15. Government of Kenya Secretariat to P. Rogers, 25 August 1952, PRO CO 822/435; H. Potter to P. Rogers, 17 August 1952, PRO, CO 822/436

  16. E. Baring to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 10 October 1952, PRO, CO 822/443; J. Whyatt to K. Roberts-Wray, 19 October 1952 and 8 October 1952, PRO, CO 822/728

  17. J. Whyatt to P. Rogers, 2 September 1952, PRO, CO 822/437

  18. Lapping, p. 491

  19. A. Clayton, Counter-insurgency in Kenya, 1952–1960, Transafrica, Nairobi, 1976, p. 54

  20. Clayton, pp. 111, 38; Maughan-Brown, pp. 39–40

  21. Cited in Barbara Slaughter, ‘How Britain crushed the “Mau Mau rebellion”’, 15 September 1999, www.wsws.org/articles/1999/sep99

  22. Canon Bewes to N. Langford-Smith, 9 February 1953, PRO, CO 822/471; Maughan-Brown, pp. 40–1; Clayton, p. 44; Canon Bewes to Governor, 28 January 1953, PRO, CO 822/471; E. Twining to W. Gorell Barnes, 25 November 1953, PRO, CO 822/499

  23. David Gough, ‘Mau Mau will sue Britain for human rights abuses’, Guardian, 29 April 1999

  24. Stephen Cook, ‘Whitehall put in the dock over Kenyan hangings’, Guardian, 1 December 1999; Slaughter, ‘How Britain crushed the “Mau Mau rebellion”’

  25. Clayton, pp. 54, 14; E. Baring to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 20 April 1953, 13 October 1953 and 24 October 1953, PRO, CO 822/728/729

  26. Cited in Jean Shaoul, ‘Kenyan Mau Mau seek compensation from British government’, 26 May 1999, www.wsws.org/articles/1999/may1999

  27. Maughan-Brown, p. 38; Slaughter, ‘How Britain crushed the “Mau Mau rebellion”’

  28. E. Baring to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 16 October 1954, PRO, CO 822/801

  29. ‘Health in detention camps’, report by H. Stott, 23 September 1954, PRO, CO 822/801

  30. V. G. Kiernan, European empires from conquest to collapse, 1815–1960, Fontana, London, 1982, p. 221; Kenneth Wanstall, ‘I saw men tortured’, Reynolds News, 13 January 1957

  31. Philip Meldon, ‘My two years in Kenya’, undated [January 1957], PRO, CO 822/1237, affidavit of Victor Shuter, 10 January 1959, PRO, CO 822/1271; Eileen Fletcher, ‘My comments on the government memorandum concerning my charges about Kenya’, 8 January 1957, PRO, CO 822/1236

  32. Cited in Slaughter, ‘How Britain crushed the “Mau Mau rebellion”’

  33. Deputy Governor to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 19 February 1953; E. Baring to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 28 September 1953 and 15 October 1953; Notes of a Colonial Office meeting, 28 September 1953; Secretary of State for the Colonies to E. Baring, 7 October 1953, PRO, CO 822/505

  34. W. Gorell Barnes to E. Baring, 1 December 1952, PRO, CO 822/450

  35. Bloch and Fitzgerald, pp. 143–55

  36. Hazlewood, pp. 34, 10

  37. Tanogo, p. 172; Bethwell Ogot and Tiyambe Zeleza, ‘Kenya: The road to independence and after’, in Prosser Gifford and W. Roger Louis, Decolonisation and African independence: The transfer of power, 1960–1980, Yale University Press, London, 1988, p. 413; Maughan-Brown, p. 188

  38. Gary Wasserman, Politics of decolonisation: Kenya, Europeans and the land issue 1960–1965, CUP, Cambridge, 1976, pp. 172–4

  39. Nicola Swainson, The development of corporate capitalism in Kenya, 1918–1977, University of California Press, Los Angeles, 1980, p. 130; Ogot and Zeleza, p. 426

  40. ‘Employment, income distribution, poverty alleviation and basic needs in Kenya’, Report of an ILO consulting mission, Cornell University, 1978, p. 96

  41. Cited in Cathy Majtenyin, ‘Landless: Beggars in their own house’, Africa News, September 2001, www.peaceline.it/afrinews

  16 Malaya: War in defence of the rubber industry

  1. Colonial Office report, 28 March 1950, PRO, CO 717/196/52821/20; Lennox Mills, Malaya: A political and economic appraisal, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1958, p. 206; ‘Papers on the emergency in Malaya’, January 1952, PRO, CO 1022/22/SEA 10/14/08

  2. Colonial Office, ‘Malaya: Brief for Minister of State’, undated (1952), PRO, CO 1022/267/SEA 192/469/01; Mills, p. 206

  3. House of Lords, Hansard, 27 February 1952, Col. 302

  4. Ibid., Col. 346

  5. Memo to the Colonial Office, 15 November 1951, PRO, CO 1022/39/SEA 10/93/01

  6. Foreign Office to Washington, 26 October 1950, PRO, CO 717/203/52911

  7. Untitled memo (1949), PRO, CO 717/163/52748; Governor of Singapore to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 23 March 1949, PRO, CO 717/163/52748; J. Higham to Sir Francis Gimson, 14 February 1949, PRO, CO 717/163/52748

  8. ‘The squatter problem in Malaya’, March 1952, PRO, CO 1022/29/SEA 10/72/01

  9. Broadcast speech to Australia, 12 October 1952, PRO, CO, 1022/2/SEA 10/03; Richard Clutterbuck, Conflict and violence in Singapore and Malaysia, 1945–1983, Graham Brash, Singapore, 1985, p. 186

  10. Kiernan, p. 212

  11. Robert Jackson, The Malayan emergency: The Commonwealth’s war, 1948–1966, Routledge, London, 1991, pp. 77, 82, 84

  12. Ibid., p. 45

  13. Cited in Charles Allen, The savage wars of peace: Soldiers voices 1945–1989, Futura, 1990, pp. 12, 21–2, 26; Geraghty, Who dares wins, pp. 28, 39

  14. Lapping, p. 219; ‘Bodies of dead rebels on public view’, Scotsman, 22 August 1952; see PRO, CO 1030/33/FED 12/568/01

  15. T. Jerrom to J. Higham, 30 April 1952, PRO, CO 1022/45/SEA 10/162/02

  16. T. Jerrom to J. Higham, 19 May 1952, 6 May, 12 May 1952, PRO, CO 1022/45/SEA/10/162/02; ‘500 sea Dyaks for Malaya’, Daily Telgraph, 23 May 1952

  17. Cited in Lapping, p. 224; Brief for Selwyn Lloyd, 21 April 1953, PRO, CO 1022/2/SEA/10/03

  18. Lapping, p. 223

  19. Jackson, p. 20, emphasis added

  20. Clutterbuck, p. 176

  21. ‘Monthly review of Chinese affairs’, December 1949, PRO, CO 717/182/52928

  22. J. Biddulph, 6 June 1951, PRO, CO 1022/148/SEA/75/167/01

  23. Letter to Colonial Office, undated (1952), PRO, CO 1022/54/SEA 10/409/01; ‘Templer sends a letter to his people’, Observer, 6 April 1952

  24. Selangor government press statement, 10 April 1952, PRO, CO 1022/55/SEA 10/409/02

  25. Foreign Office telegram, 22 March 1951, PRO, CO 1022/2/SEA 10/03; Memo by the Secretary of State for the Colonies, CAB 21/1682, DO (50) 93, 15 November 1950

  26. Jackson, p. 26; Allen, p. 101

  27. H. Kearns and E. Woodford, ‘The chemical control of roadside vegetation’, 2 February 1953, PRO, CO 1022/26/SEA 10/45/01; A. Humphrey to J. Higham, 19 January 1953, PRO, CO 1022/26/SEA 10/45/01

  28. ‘A plan for rubber’, Economist, 9 October 1954

  29. Ritchie Ovendale, The English-speaking alliance: Britain, the United States, the Dominions and the cold war, 1945–1951, George Allen & Unwin, London, 1985, pp. 151–63

  30. Jackson, pp. 19, 39

  31. ‘Official designation of the communist forces’, PRO, CO 1022/48/SEA 10/172/01

  32. James Adams, Secret armies: The full story of the SAS, Delta Force and Spetsnaz, Pan, London, 1988

  33. Chris Dixon, Southeast Asia in the world economy, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1991, pp. 183, 186

  17 British Guiana: Overstepping ‘decent government’

  1. Farewell address by Governor Sir Charles Campbell Woolley, PRO, CO 1031/287

  2. ALC Ltd, 25th Annual Report, PRO, CO 1031/1103

  3. ‘British Guiana: The economic consequences of the PPP’, undated (1953), PRO, CO 1031/298; ‘The economic production of sugar
cane by individual farmers’, 8 January 1954, PRO, CO 1031/1444

  4. Cited in K. Martin to J. Campbell, 26 October 1953, PRO, CO 1031/6; Colonial Office, ‘British Guiana: Housing’, undated (1953), PRO, CO 1031/235

  5. Note by the Governor, undated (September 1953), PRO, CO 1031/121

  6. CRO to High Commissioners, 30 September 1953, PRO, PREM 11/827

  7. O. Lyttleton to Prime Minister, 5 May 1953, PRO, PREM 11/827

  8. Press statement, 1 November 1951, PRO, CO 1031/776

  9. H. Seaford to J. Campbell, 8 September 1953, PRO, CO 1031/121

  10. Nigel Nicholson, House of Commons, Hansard, 22 October 1953, Col. 2259

  11. O. Lyttleton, ‘Cabinet: British Guiana’, 25 September 1953, PRO, PREM 11/827; House of Commons debates, 22 October 1953, Cols. 2179, 2166; ‘British Guiana: The economic consequences of the PPP’, undated (1953), PRO, CO 1031/298

  12. House of Commons debates, 7 December 1953, cited in Thomas Spinner, A political and social history of Guyana, 1945–1983, Westview Press, London, 1984, p. 55

  13. ‘Statement by Her Majesty’s government’, 9 October 1953, PRO, CO 1031/1003

  14. House of Commons, Hansard, 22 October 1953, Col.s 2166, 2173

  15. UK delegation to the UN to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 30 September 1953, PRO, PREM 11/827

  16. State Department policy information, ‘Situation in British Guiana (2)’, 9 October 1953, PRO, CO 1031/1189; A. Campbell to J. Vernon, 16 October 1953, PRO, CO 1031/1189

  17. House of Commons, Hansard, 22 October 1953, Cols. 2190–8

  18. House of Commons, Hansard, 22 October 1953, Col. 2183

  19. Governor to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 23 May 1955, PRO, CO 1031/1437; Officer Administering the Government of British Guiana to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 5 September 1955, PRO, CO 1031/1437

  20. Spinner, pp. 91–101; Blum, The CIA, pp. 118–23

  21. Philip Agee, Inside the company: CIA diary, London, 1975, p. 406

 

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