Auschwitz workforce (just over 10,000 prisoners), but the number of forced laborers at the plant was smaller. In November 1944 the WVHA listed Monowitz as a new main camp, with responsibility for the almost forty Auschwitz satellites. The establishment of the 292
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Monowitz and Mittelbau (Dora) main camps was part of the last reorganization of the SS camp system. 25
For Monowitz’s prisoners, horrible days lay ahead. In January 1945, the Soviets began the Vistula-Oder Offensive and the timing caught the German army by surprise. The Red Army consequently captured the still unfinished plant with little damage. The SS evacuated Monowitz on 18 January, as part of the larger evacuation of the Auschwitz satellite camps. The ‘‘death march’’ that Mr. Berg describes so vividly had begun. 26
After four years of construction, I.G. Auschwitz remained unfinished. Under the Germans at least, it never produced synthetic oil or rubber, but wasted tens of thousands of human lives. The plant was a monument to a totalitarian dictatorship that enlisted private industry in the service of refashioning humanity along ‘‘racial’’ lines.
Notes
1. AndreŚellier, A History of the Dora Camp: The Story of the Nazi Slave Labor Camp That Secretly Manufactured V-2 Rockets, foreword by Michael J. Neufeld, afterword by Jens-Christian Wagner, trans. Stephen Wright and Susan Taponier (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, published in associated with the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 2003); Yves Beón, Planet Dora: A Memoir of the Holocaust and the Birth of the Space Age, introduction by Michael J. Neufeld, trans. Yves Beón and Richard L. Fague (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997); Georges Wellers, De Drancy aÀuschwitz (Paris: E´ditions du Centre, 1946); reissued under the title of L’e´toile jaune à l’heure de Vichy: De Drancy aÀuschwitz (Paris: Librairie Arthème Fayard, 1973); Paul Steinberg, Speak You Also: A Survivor’s Reckon-ing, trans. Linda Coverdale with Bill Ford (New York: Metropolitan Books, Henry Holt and Company, 2000), originally published as Chronique d’ailleurs (Paris: Editions Ramsay, 1996); Antoni Makowski, ‘‘Organization, Growth and Activity of the Prisoners’ Hospital AFTERWORD
293
at Monowitz (KL Auschwitz III),’’ in From the History of KL Auschwitz, vol. II, ed. Kasimierz Smolen, trans. Kryztyna Michalik (Krako´w: Panstwowe Muzeum w Oswiecimiu, 1976), pp. 121–195.
2. Lawrence L. Langer, Holocaust Testimonies: The Ruins of Memory (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1991).
3. Primo Levi, Survival in Auschwitz: The Nazi Assault on Humanity, trans. Stuart Woolf (New York and London: Collier’s, 1961), p. 66 (quotation).
4. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), RG-238 (War Crimes), microfilm publication T-301, Records of the United States Chief of Counsel for War Crimes, Nuremberg, Relating to Nuremberg Industrialists (NI), roll 84, NI-10186, frames 382–383, 565–566, Monowitz Hospital Book, 15 July 1943–27 June 1944, hereafter T-301/84/NI-10186/382–383, 565–
566. Pierre Berg telephone interview, 13 June 2004; Levi, Survival in Auschwitz, pp. 39–50; on hospital blocks, Makowski, ‘‘Organization, Growth and Activity of the Prisoners’ Hospital at Monowitz (KL Auschwitz III),’’ p. 129. Two more blocks were added before Monowitz’s abandonment in January 1945.
5. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Archives, Moscow Central State Osobyi (special) Archives, Record Group (RG-) 11.001 M.03, Zentralbauleitung der Waffen SS und Polizei Auschwitz, fond (record group) 502, opis (inventory) 5, delo (file) 2, roll 70, Rundschreiben Nr. 8013/44, IG Auschwitz Werksluftschutzlei-tung, Du¨rrfeld, Betr.: ‘‘Sichtbares Warnsignal,’’ 25 Aug. 1944, p.
43; on the documented air attacks, see Joseph Robert White, ‘‘Target Auschwitz: Historical and Hypothetical Allied Responses to Allied Attack,’’ Holocaust and Genocide Studies ( HGS) 16:1 (Spring 2002): 58–59.
6. Steinberg, Speak You Also; White, ‘‘’Even in Auschwitz . . .
Humanity Could Prevail’: British POWs and Jewish Concentration-Camp Inmates at IG Auschwitz, 1943–1945,’’ HGS 15:2 (Fall 2001): 266–295.
7. For the nationality figures, see Michael Neufeld, ‘‘Introduction: Mittelbau-Dora—Secret Weapons and Slave Labor,’’ in Beón, 294
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Planet Dora, p. xx; idem, ‘‘Foreword,’’ in Sellier, A History of the Dora Camp, p. x; for the history of Dora, see also Joachim Neander, Das Konzentrationslager Mittelbau in der Endphase der NS-Diktatur: Zur Geschichte des letzten im ‘‘Dritten Reich’’ gegru¨ndeten selbsta¨ndigen Konzentrationslagers unter besonderer Beru¨cksichtigung seiner Auflo¨sun-gsphase (Clausthal-Zellerfeld: Papierflieger, 1997); and most importantly Jens-Christian Wagner, Produktion des Todes: Das KZ
Mittelbau-Dora, ed. Stiftung von der Gedenksta¨tten Buchenwald und Mittelbau-Dora (Go¨ttingen: Wallstein Verlag, 2001).
8. Pierre Berg, ‘‘Odyssey of a Pajama’’ (unpub. MSS, 1953); Berg, telephone interview, 13 June 2004.
9. Elie Wiesel, Night, trans. Stella Rodway, foreword by Franc¸ois Mauriac, preface by Robert McAfee Brown (New York: Bantam, 1986 [1960]); Levi, The Reawakening (New York: Summit Books, 1986 [1963]). On the Soviet occupation, see Norman M.
Naimark, The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949 (Cambridge, MA, and London: The Belk-nap Press of Harvard University Press, 1995); and Antony Beevor, The Fall of Berlin 1945 (New York and London: Viking Penguin, 2002).
10. For the recorded Himmler visits, see Danuta Czech (comp.), Auschwitz Chronicle, 1939–1945 (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1990), pp. 50–51, 198–199.
11. For the six-phase schema, see Karin Orth, Das System der nationalsozialistischen Konzentrationslager: Eine politische Organisati-onsgeschichte (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 1999); an older, three-phase scheme is outlined in Falk Pingel, Ha¨ftlinge unter SS-Herrschaft: Widerstand, Selbstbehauptung, und Vernichtung im Konzentrationslager (Hamburg: Hoffmann und Campe, 1978), p. 14; and idem, ‘‘Resistance and Resignation in Nazi Concentration Camps,’’
in The Policies of Genocide: Jews and Soviet Prisoners of War in Nazi Germany, ed. Gerhard Hirschfeld (London: Allen & Unwin, 1986), pp. 30–72. Klaus Drobisch and Gu¨nther Wieland, System der NS-Konzentrationslager, 1933–1939 (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1993), AFTERWORD
295
11–75; see also Wolfgang Benz and Barbara Distel (eds.), Instru-mentarium der Macht: Fru¨he Konzentrationslager, 1933–1937 (Berlin: Metropol, 2003); Charles W. Sydnor, Jr., Soldiers of Destruction: The SS Death’s Head Division, 1933–1945 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977), pp. 15–17; quotation in Michael Thad Allen, The Business of Genocide: The SS, Slave Labor, and the Concentration Camps (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), p. 36.
12. Falk Pingel, ‘‘Concentration Camps,’’ s.v., Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, ed. Israel Gutman (New York: Macmillan Publishing Co.; London: Collier MacMillan, 1990); Eugon Kogon, The Theory and Practice of Hell, trans. Heinz Norden (New York: Berkley Books, 1980 [1950]), pp. 29–39; on the triangle system’s origins, see An-nette Eberle, ‘‘Ha¨ftlingskategorien und Kennzeichnungen,’’ in Wolfgang Benz and Barbara Distel (ed.), Der Ort des Terrors: Geschichte der nationalsozialistischen Konzentrationslager, vol. I: Die Organisation des Terrors (Munich: C.H. Beck, 2005), pp. 91–109.
13. Allen, The Business of Genocide, chaps. 1–2; Reinhard Vogel-sang, Der Freundeskreis Himmler (Go¨ttingen, Zu¨rich, and Frankfurt: Musterschmidt, 1972), pp. 88–89.
14. Rudolf Ho¨ss, Commandant of Auschwitz: The Autobiography of Rudolf Hoess, introduction by Lord Russell of Liverpool, trans.
Constantine FitzGibbon (Cleveland and New York: The World Publishing Co., 1959), passim.
15. On the direction of the German war economy, compare Alan S. Milward, The German Economy at War (London: University of London Athlone Press, 1965); with R. J. Overy, War and Economy in the Third Reich (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994). On the SS-WVHA, Allen, The Business of Genocide, passim. Christopher Browning, Nazi Policy, Jewish Wo
rkers, German Killers (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 86.
16. ‘‘Safe remove’’ is a relative term, because Edward Wester-mann demonstrates that in 1941 the Royal Air Force’s Wellington bombers had the hypothetical range to attack Auschwitz. See his 296
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‘‘The Royal Air Force and the Bombing of Auschwitz: First Delib-erations, January 1941,’’ HGS 15:1 (Spring 2001), pp. 75–76, 78.
17. Peter Hayes, Industry and Ideology: IG Farben in the Nazi Era, 2nd ed. (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001), pp. xii–xvi; Joseph Robert White, ‘‘IG Auschwitz: The Primacy of Racial Politics (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 2000), p. 30; hereafter, White,
‘‘Primacy.’’
18. Faust quotation in T-301/118/NI-14556(S)/708, IG Auschwitz Weekly Report No. 30, 15–21 Dec. 1941.
19. On management’s frustration with the Four-Year Plan authorities, White, ‘‘Primacy,’’ pp. 50–51. On ‘‘Crimes against Peace’’ allegations against IG Farben, Josiah DuBois, The Devil’s Chemists: 24 Conspirators of the International Farben Cartel Who Manufacture Wars (Boston: Beacon Press, 1952); and Mark E. Spicka,
‘‘The Devil’s Chemists on Trial: The American Prosecution of IG
Farben at Nuremberg,’’ The Historian 61:4 (Summer 1999): 894.
20. As summarized in White, ‘‘Primacy,’’ chap. III.
21. NARA, RG-242 (Captured German Documents), Nuremberg Organizations (NO-) 1501, Gerhard Maurer, SS-WVHA Office DII Rundschreiben, Abschrift, DII/1 23 Ma/Hag., 5 Oct. 1942.
22. On the infirmary’s genocidal role, White, ‘‘Primacy,’’ chap.
IV and pp. 328–342.
23. United States Strategic Bombing Survey, Oil Division, Powder, Explosives, Special Rockets and Jet Propellants, War Gases and Smoke Acid (Ministerial Report No. 1), 2nd ed. (NP: Oil Division, Jan. 1947), pp. 3–4, 22, 54, Exhibit H.
24. White, ‘‘Target Auschwitz,’’ p. 72 n. 23.
25. On the IG Auschwitz workforce, see NARA, RG 238, microfilm publication M-892, USA v. Carl Krauch, et al. (IG Farben Case), roll 65, frame 813, Walther Du¨rrfeld Exhibit 136, Document 1505, Five Personnel Charts for IG Auschwitz, 1941–1944.
26. Christopher Duffy, Red Storm on the Reich: The Soviet March on Germany, 1945 (New York: Atheneum, 1991); on IG Auschwitz’s last days, White, ‘‘Primacy,’’ pp. 310–314.
G L O S S A R Y
APPELPLATZ (German) The place for roll call (Appel) in the camps.
AUSCHWITZ The original Auschwitz camp (Auschwitz I) was built in 1940 in the suburbs of the Polish city of Oswiecim. On June 14, 1940, the first convoy of Polish political prisoners—728 men—
arrived at the camp. By 1943, Auschwitz was the largest Nazi camp complex, with three main camps—Auschwitz I, Auschwitz II-Birkenau, and Auschwitz III-Monowitz—and some forty subcamps. Over 50 percent of the registered Ha¨ftlinge in the Auschwitz complex died; 70 to 75 percent of each transport was sent straight to the gas chambers.
Untold numbers of victims of the gas chambers were never registered.
The total number of Jews murdered in Auschwitz will never be known, but estimates range from 1 million and 2.5 million. The next highest groups were Poles and Russian POWs, most of them dying in the construction of the I.G. Farben plant and as gas chamber ‘‘guinea pigs,’’ and Gypsies. Auschwitz was liberated by the Soviet army on January 27, 1945.
BIBELFORSCHER (German) A Jehovah’s Witness, a purple triangle. German Jehovah’s Witnesses, because of their beliefs, refused to use the Hitler salute, salute the Nazi flag, bear arms as soldiers, or participate in affairs of the government. Viewed as enemies of the state, 297
298
GLOSSARY
many Jehovah’s Witnesses lost their jobs, homes, businesses, and pen-sions. If they renounced their faith, they could avoid persecution. Over 900 Jehovah’s Witness children who refused to join the Hitler Youth were thrown into penal institutions and juvenile homes. Jehovah’s Witness publications wrote many scathing articles on Hitler’s regime and on the concentration camps. In 1937, the magazine Consolation ran an article on poison-gas experiments in Dachau, and in June 1940, the magazine stated, ‘‘There were 3,500,000 Jews in Poland when Germany began its Blitzkrieg . . . and if reports are correct their destruction seems well under way.’’ Auschwitz camp commander Rudolf Franz Ho¨ss saw the Bibelforscher in his camp as ‘‘poor idiots who were quite happy in their own way.’’ Over 10,000 German and European Jehovah’s Witnesses were shipped to concentration camps. It’s estimated that between 4,000 and 5,000 Jehovah’s Witnesses were murdered during the Nazis’ reign, more than 1,500 of them in the camps.
BIRKENAU (German) Literally ‘‘birch grove,’’ this was Auschwitz II, an extermination camp built in October 1941 and located near the Polish village of Brzezinka. In the spring of 1942, the ‘‘showers’’ and crematoriums were operational. On October 10, 1944, there was the uprising of the Sonderkommando, during which the prisoner crew of crematoria IV revolted and destroyed the crematories. In November 1944, Heinrich Himmler shut down the gas chambers and made efforts to conceal the mass murder that had taken place there.
BLOCK/BLOCKS (German) Barracks.
BLOCKAELTESTE/R (German) Barracks supervisor/s.
BLOKOWA (Polish) Female barracks supervisor.
BLOKOWY (Polish) Barracks supervisor.
BOCHE/BOCHES (French/slang) A derogatory term for a German citizen/s.
BUNA Acronym for butadiene natrium, or synthetic rubber. The I.G. Farben plant was called ‘‘Buna’’ by the inmates. The plant was built to produce synthetic rubber and fuel. When the Nazis abandoned Auschwitz, not an ounce of synthetic rubber had yet been produced.
CROIX DE FEU Literally, Cross of Fire. A right-wing organization founded in 1915 by a group of French officers. Original members were all holders of the Military Cross. Many conservative Catholics GLOSSARY
299
joined the nationalist, monarchist, and revanchist (‘‘revenge’’) organization in the 1920s. Membership peaked at 750,000 in 1937. Widely regarded as the counterpart of Germany’s and Italy’s fascist organizations.
DER STU¨RMER Literally ‘‘The Attacker.’’ An anti-Semitic Nazi weekly newspaper first published on April 20, 1923. Based in Nuremberg, its publisher and editor, Julius Streicher, used the paper to spread Hitler’s doctrine of hatred with crude, simply written articles and
‘‘Jew-baiting’’ cartoons. The final edition of Der Stu¨rmer was published on February 1, 1945. After the war, Streicher was tried at the Nurem-burg trials for inciting hate and was hanged on October 16, 1946.
DORA, MITTLEBAU-DORA (Also known as Dora-Nordhausen) Established in August 1943 near the southern Harz Mountains and north of the town of Nordhausan, Dora was originally a subcamp of Buchenwald. The first Ha¨ftlinge were forced to build the underground factory for the production of the V-1 and V-2 rockets. In November 1944, the camp was renamed Mittelbau. About 60,000 men were used as forced or slave laborers, and more than 20,000 died there. Mittelbau-Dora was liberated on April 11, 1945, by the U.S. 33rd Armored Regiment.
DRANCY A transit camp located in the suburbs of Paris. Almost all Jews rounded up in France passed through Drancy before being shipped to Auschwitz and other concentration camps. It wasn’t until 1995 that the French government acknowledged the culpability of the Vichy regime in the Nazis’ ‘‘Final Solution.’’
FLIC (French/slang) Policeman.
FRONT POPULAIRE A broad coalition of leftist French political parties and major trade unions formed in July 1935. The three main parties were the French Socialist Party (SFIO), the French Communist Party (PCF), and the le Parti Radical. The head of the Front Populaire was Leon Blum, leader of the SFIO. The coalition headed the French government from June 1935 to March 1940.
FUSSLAPAN (German) Foot rags.
GARDES-MOBLES French Federal Police.
GENDARMES
French Military Police.
GESTAPO Short for Geheime Staatspolizei, or Secret State Police. Allowed to work above the law, the Gestapo was the tool of terror 300
GLOSSARY
in Germany and all Nazi-occupied countries. Its primary task was to round up Jews and other ‘‘undesirables.’’ At the Nuremberg trials, the entire organization was charged with crimes against humanity.
GRAND GUIGNOL (French) Used to describe any dramatic entertainment designed to shock, horrify, and sicken and usually featuring the violently gruesome and gory. The phrase comes from the Theatre du Grand Guignol in Montmarte, Paris, which specialized in ‘‘shock theatre.’’
HA¨FTLING/E (German) Inmate/s.
HIMMLER, HEINRICH The man responsible for the implementa-tion of the ‘‘Final Solution.’’ Hitler appointed him Reichsfu¨hrer-SS
(Reich SS leader) in 1929. In Aprir 1934, Hermann Go¨ring, the president of the Reichstag, gave Himmler power over the Gestapo. All the concentration camps were under his command. In the summer of 1942, he ordered the Warsaw Ghetto to be emptied because the Jews were dying too slowly in the confined area. In 1943, he was named Minister of the Interior, then in 1944, was appointed the chief of the Replace-ment Army. On May 23, 1945, Himmler was captured by British forces and committed suicide.
HKB/HA¨FTLINGSKRANKENBAU (German) Inmates’ infirmary.
I. G. FARBEN A German conglomerate formed in 1925. Major companies included Bayer, Agfa, and BASF. Seeing great postwar potential, I.G. Farben funded I.G. Auschwitz without any government money. It was their largest plant and cost more than 900 million Reichsmark (over $250 million). Zyklon B was produced by the I.G.
Scheisshaus Luck: Surviving the Unspeakable in Auschwitz and Dora Page 29