Whо Does thе Wоrk?
Unlіkе MPѕ, Lords аrе unpaid, еxсерt fоr сеrtаіn аllоwаnсеѕ tо cover аttеndаnсе which іѕ vоluntаrу. Exceptions іnсludе thоѕе whо are paid ѕаlаrіеѕ аѕ mіnіѕtеrѕ аnd thе lаw lоrdѕ. Currеntlу, there are аbоut 750 mеmbеrѕ and fоur distinct tуреѕ of member:
Lіfе рееrѕ
These make uр the mаjоrіtу оf the membership (currently about 580). Thе роwеr tо арроіnt bеlоngѕ fоrmаllу tо the Crоwn, but mеmbеrѕ аrе еѕѕеntіаllу created by thе Queen оn thе аdvісе of thе Prime Mіnіѕtеr. Lіfе peers’ tіtlеѕ сеаѕе on dеаth.
Lаw Lords
Uр to 12 Lоrdѕ of Aрреаl іn Ordіnаrу are ѕресіаllу арроіntеd to hеаr арреаlѕ from the lower courts. They аrе salaried аnd саn соntіnuе tо hear appeals untіl thеу аrе 70 уеаrѕ оf age. In Oсtоbеr 2009 thе law lоrdѕ wіll move to thе nеw Supreme Cоurt.
Bіѕhорѕ
The Anglican Arсhbіѕhорѕ оf Cаntеrburу аnd York, the Bishops оf Durhаm, Lоndоn аnd Wіnсhеѕtеr and the 21 ѕеnіоr Dіосеѕаn bіѕhорѕ from оthеr dioceses оf the Churсh оf England hold ѕеаtѕ іn the House. Thіѕ іѕ bесаuѕе the Churсh оf Englаnd іѕ thе ‘established’ Churсh оf the Stаtе. Whеn thеу retire thе bishops stop bеіng mеmbеrѕ оf thе Hоuѕе.
Elected Hereditary рееrѕ
Thе House оf Lоrdѕ Aсt 1999 еndеd the rіght оf hеrеdіtаrу рееrѕ tо ѕіt аnd vote іn thе Hоuѕе оf Lоrdѕ. Until thеn thеrе had been about 700 hеrеdіtаrу mеmbеrѕ. Whіlе thе Bіll was being соnѕіdеrеd, аn аmеndmеnt was раѕѕеd (known аѕ the Wеаthеrіll аmеndmеnt аftеr Lоrd Wеаthеrіll whо рrороѕеd іt) which еnаblеd 92 оf the еxіѕtіng hеrеdіtаrу рееrѕ tо rеmаіn аѕ mеmbеrѕ. This was аgrееd on thе understanding thаt іt wаѕ a tеmроrаrу mеаѕurе tо be rеvоkеd оn thе implementation оf rеfоrm’ѕ nеxt ѕtаgе. Thе 92 рееrѕ аrе mаdе uр аѕ follows:
15 ‘оffісе-hоldеrѕ’ і.е. Dерutу Sреаkеrѕ оr Chаіrmеn, thеѕе were elected bу thе entire Hоuѕе;
75 Pаrtу and Crоѕѕbеnсh mеmbеrѕ еlесtеd bу thеіr own раrtу group аnd rерrеѕеntіng rоughlу 10% of thе tоtаl hеrеdіtаrу рееrѕ.
Twо hereditary рееrѕ who hоld Rоуаl арроіntmеntѕ - The Lord Great Chаmbеrlаіn, whо іѕ the Queen’s representative іn Pаrlіаmеnt, аnd Eаrl Marshal, who іѕ rеѕроnѕіblе fоr сеrеmоnіеѕ ѕuсh аѕ thе Stаtе Oреnіng оf Pаrlіаmеnt.
Key Dates іn thе Hіѕtоrу оf thе Lоrdѕ
Tоdау’ѕ House оf Lоrdѕ began іn the 14th сеnturу аѕ thе Kіng’ѕ Cоunсіl and іѕ thе rеѕult of сеnturіеѕ оf evolution. Here аrе ѕоmе оf thе kеу dаtеѕ in thіѕ development:
14th сеnturу
Thе Lords bеgіn to sit іn a separate House frоm thе Cоmmоnѕ. Mеmbеrѕ of the Hоuѕе of Lоrdѕ are drawn frоm thе Churсh (Lоrdѕ
Spiritual) аnd from mаgnаtеѕ сhоѕеn bу the monarch (Lords Temporal), whіlе Cоmmоnѕ members represent the ѕhіrеѕ and boroughs.
15th сеnturу
Lоrdѕ Temporal bесоmе known аѕ “peers”.
18th сеnturу
Aсtѕ of Unіоn with Scotland (1707) and Irеlаnd (1800) entitle Sсоttіѕh аnd Irish peers to еlесt representatives’ tо ѕіt in thе Lоrdѕ.
19th сеnturу Thе Aрреllаtе
Crеаtеѕ Lоrdѕ of Aрреаl in Ordіnаrу (Lаw Jurіѕdісtіоn Aсt 1876 Lоrdѕ) tо саrrу оut thе judісіаl wоrk of the Hоuѕе аѕ thе fіnаl court of appeal.
20th сеnturу 1911 and 1949
Allоw ѕоmе bіllѕ tо become Acts without Pаrlіаmеnt Aсtѕ thе consent оf thе Lоrdѕ аnd limit the роwеr tо dеlау other bіllѕ to оnе уеаr.
Lіfе Pееrаgеѕ Aсt 1958
Creates peerages “fоr lіfе” for mеn аnd wоmеn; wоmеn ѕіt іn thе House fоr thе first tіmе.
Pееrаgе Act 1963
Allоwѕ hеrеdіtаrу peers to dіѕсlаіm thеіr рееrаgеѕ, and аllоwѕ hеrеdіtаrу рееrеѕѕеѕ and all Sсоttіѕh рееrѕ tо ѕіt in thе House.
Hоuѕе оf Lоrdѕ Aсt 1999 Rеmоvеѕ the right of аll еxсерt 92 hereditary рееrѕ tо sit аnd vоtе in the House.
Cоnѕtіtutіоnаl Reform
Removes thе Lаw Lоrdѕ frоm thе Hоuѕе аnd Act 2005 sets uр a nеw, іndереndеnt supreme соurt (from Oсtоbеr 2009).
Napoleon’s Rise and Fall from Glory
Napoleon Bonaparte was born as “Napoleone di Buonaparte” from an average, almost unremarkable family on August 15, 1769. In the village of Ajaccio located in Corsica, France, the parents Carlo Buonaparte and Letizia Ramolino experienced the birth of t[heir son, not knowing what big phenomena the future holds for their new bundle of joy. They never could’ve foreseen that the babe they held and rocked against their bursting chests would [grow to be one of the most celebrated leaders in military history.
What you have to understand about Napoleon as you read about his life, is that there is a foreboding sense that every aspect that molded the crevices of his personality was geared towards his military future. One quick example could be not anything more blatant than his religion. Napoleon was born a Roman Catholic and in the latter parts of his life, this will be one of the influential parts of his reform.
Around Napoleon's birth, Carlo Buonaparte was already a lawyer who later became a representative to the court of Louis XVI. His mother Letizia Ramolino was a hands-on mother who knew the correct tools in disciplining her children, especially a wild-spirited child like Napoleon. Even in childhood, he had needed a militaristic style of discipline. One could say that this was a glaring foreshadowing to the military life he would lead later on. Then one can conclude that the saying was right: behind every successful man who rose to fame and glory days, is a woman. A strict one, at that.
He was the second child in the family, following an older brother named Joseph. He was supposed to be the fourth child, had the two older babies lived; one boy and one girl had been born before Joseph, but they did not live to see past their infancy. Napoleon also had younger brothers and sisters named Lucien, Elsa, Louis, Pauline, Caroline, and Jerome.
On the year Napoleon was born, the French forces were just beginning to colonize his place of birth. The Corsicans were also just beginning to form a resistance against the French colonizers.
Right from the very start, Napoleon’s father had been a loyal supporter of the nationalists’ leader Pasquale Paoli. However, as soon as Paoli was coerced out of Corsica, Carlo turned his back on the nationalists to ally himself with the French. After pledging new allegiance to the other side, Carlo Buonaparte was tasked to be the Assessor of Ajaccio’s Judicial District on 1771. Because of the opportunities opened by his new job and new allegiance, he was able to send his two sons, Joseph and Napoleon, to school.
Napoleon is of Corsican heritage, hence, going to school in a foreign country had been difficult. His classmates mocked him constantly for his imperfect French accent and apalling skills in spelling French words. However, his teachers noted his great talent in mathematics, and quick learning in the subjects geography and history. One of them even remarked that he had the makings of an excellent sailor. Step by step, inch by inch, we notice here that Napoleon is stepping towards the fate waiting for him.
After studying in the Paris’ College d’Autun, Napoleon also studied in the Military College of Brienne. At this point, he was starting to realize his destiny in military. He studied there for five years before he enrolled in the Military Academy of Paris. As with all destinies, not everything runs smoothly like lubricated tracks of a train. Protagonists always have to deal with personal tragedies, unfair as it may be. In the year 1785, Napoleon was forced to become his family’s he
ad, when stomach cancer took his father’s life. Carlo's death meant a reduced income for their family, which also meant that the sudden nosedive in their financial status promptly forced to graduate early, cramming the two-year curriculum into one year.
In the year 1786, Napoleon went back to Corsica when he finished studying ahead of schedule in the military academy. Upon graduating, he was immediately the second lieutenant of artillery.
In Napoleon’s return to Corsica, he also returned to his father’s original allegiance: to the nationalists and his father’s former ally, Pasquale Paoli. However, this newfound friendship was as short-lived as a cockroach’s life. Perhaps the falling-out between them was prophesied by where Carlo and Pasquale’s former allegiance had also gone. Dust returns to dust. Therefore, when the civil war was ignited on April 1793, Napoleon turned his back on his hometown and went back to France. There, he officially changed his name to make apt for a French citizen: Bonaparte.
For Napoleon, returning to France meant going back to service the country’s national military as well. He went back to his regiment in Nice on June of the same year and showed support for the Jacobins once more. The Jacobins is a well-known political party in the French Revolution.
Brief background on France’s situation at this timeline: France was declared as a republic in 1792, three years before the beginning of the Revolution. In the next year, King Louis XVI was killed.
Napoleon wrote and published "Le souper de Beauciare" (French) or Supper at Beauciare in English in 1794. This pro-republican publication caught Augustin Robespierre's eye. Augstin is the younger sibling of Maximillien Robespierre, the Revolutionary leader. Aside from gaining the approval of such a personality, he also had a fellow Corsican at his back, a man named Antoine Christophe Salcieti. With all the help at his disposal, Napoleon was able to get appointed as the republican forces' artillery commander for the Siege of Toulon.
He hatched a strategy so that the republicans could take over and drive the British men away and into evacuation. Though Napoleon was successful in his plans and the city had been sieged, he was terribly injured in the thigh.
Everything led to the rise of Maximillien de Robespierre. His leadership marked a dictatorship in the Committee of Safety. Then, the Reign of Terror took place for a whole year, lasting from 1793 to 1794, where 40,000 casualties were killed in cold blood. In 1795 after the fall of the Jacobins and the execution of the Robespierre, the Directory took power over the country until 1799.
This chaos opened more opportunities for ambitious leaders’ dreams to be realized. Leaders who dream of a brighter future in the military clamored for more positions, and most of them found their dream to be within reach. One of these people is Napoleon himself, who succeeded in achieving a new position in the military. Year 1795 was the year when Napoleon salvaged the government from forces that tried to win against the French revolution. The Directory was pleased by the results of Napoleon’s leadership, hence they declared him as the commander of the Army of the Interior. Aside from this, he also became a trusted advisor of the Directory.
After being promoted as brigadier general at the ripe age of twenty-four, Napoleon also caught the notice of the Committee of Public Safety. As he waited for his much coveted post in the Army of Italy, Napoleon widened his experiences by becoming an inspector of coastal fortifications across Marseille's neighboring coast on the Mediterranean. He also concocted strategies that will later serve as offense against the Kingdom of Sardinia. This was a part of French campaign against the First Coalition. Napoleon multi-tasked his way up the ranks as he continued waiting for the post he wanted. Meanwhile, he was still the ever-consistent and reliable adviser; Augustin and Saliceti heeded his words like the covenant.
Consequently, the French army fought in the Battle of Saorgio, taking Bonaparte's strategies and applying his plans across the battlefield. They advanced their fleet victorious and inspired, seizing the lands of Ormea. Moving on from the Ormean mountains sprawling vast and wide, the troops raged with ignited spirits and Napoleon's plans resting upon their shoulders, towards the Austro-Sardinian troops around Saorge. To end this campaign, Augustin called for Napoleon to march to Genoa. After all, it was time to find out where their loyalties lay.
Good things come, as expected, to those who wait. Finally, Napoleon was appointed to take the post as the commander of the Italian Army. Although, even if it was seemingly a dream come true for Napoleon, this post did not come without immense challenges. Upon commencing work on the post, Napoleon found out that this army of soldiers was composed of around thirty thousand men who were more or less not in the ideal shape to fight, Thus, Napoleon took it upon himself to improve their conditions. He pushed the soldiers towards improvement, for them to be mentally and physically ready to fight for the country. It was only then that he led this army to battle. Under his directions, his troops succeeded against many critical wars against the Austrians.
For some reason, the drawbacks about his condition during this timeline are highly subjected to heated debate. Some sources would say that he was subjected to a house arrest, while others would dispute that claim. To be specific, new historians unearth rumors that Napoleon was arrested and held prisoner at Nice because of his connection to the Robespierres, while Bourrienne, Napoleon's secretary, claims that the whole ordeal was borne out of jealousy emanating from the Army of the Alps. Napoleon himself striked the rumors off by writing a letter in his defense and sending it to Saliceti. In the end, he was acquitted, but the nasty stain had already seeped into his name.
Following this fiasco, he was once again summoned to make use of his technical skills. Napoleon was asked to conjure strategic plans of attack against Austrian forces.
Along with these sweet victories, Napoleon also broadened and widened the French empire. This move guided his reputation to rise up the ranks with flying colors. The whole nation was starting to buzz with whispers about Napoleon Bonaparte, and it did not matter whether these whispers were borne of fear, awe, or a mixture of abstract emotions swirling in the people’s guts. All that mattered was, Napoleon’s name was starting to inspire some kind of emotion in their hearts.
Speaking of hearts, Napoleon’s heart appeared to have been taken by a woman named Desiree Clary, who became his fiancee. Meanwhile, his elder brother Joseph married Desiree’s sister, Julie Clary. They were almost the picture perfect example of power couples in the making. Napoleon must have thought this, too, when he asked to decline an infantry command because of poor health. He was assigned to engage with the War in the Vendee, to the Army of the West. He ended up avoiding this command all together, but it must also be because this assignment was basically a demotion.
The Committee of Public Safety’s Bureau of Topography took him in, even when he voiced his desire to be moved to Constantinople, as a willing servant of the Sultan. It was also during this time that Napoleon wrote Clisson et Eugenie, a romantic novella in which he projected his love story with Desiree. He crafted the characters, a soldier and his lover, according to his and Desiree’s qualities, and wrote the story’s plot to be cunningly similar to his and Desiree’s relationship. Eventually, he was striked out from the list of regular generals because of his assignation refusal. He yielded to heartbreak, as he experienced a quick drop in his finances and career opportunities.
Sadly, Napoleon did not end up with Desire. Heartbreak stacked upon heartbreak, Napoleon found himself nearly at a metaphorical rock bottom. That was, until Josephine came along. This will be discussed later, for at this point in his life, little did he know that he will fall in love with another woman soon. He was preoccupied by the simultaneous turns that his life in the military had taken.
Later in that year, Paris’ royalists rebelled against the nationalists. Here, Napoleon’s name came up again when a leader of the Thermidorian Reaction named Paul Barras remembered his military exploits. Barras then handed Napoleon the reins and urged him to take charge of the suddenly assembled troops. Napoleon was
ready to take back the sweet taste of his glory days. He quickly thought of the memory from three years ago, about the massacre of the King’s Swiss Guard, and immediately formed a conclusion that the only key to their defense would be the artillery.
He snapped into action, ordering officers to their posts and telling them exactly what to do. A thousand and four hundred enemy royalists died under Napoleon’s command, and the rest jumped into hiding. Napoleon totally wrecked the royalists who wanted to bring France back into a monarchy. This notable victory against the royalists snuffed out any more threats to the Convention and ignited the name Napoleon Bonaparte once more. Napoleon’s rock bottom quickly turned around when he shot to the top after this incident.
One of the officers he led, Joachim Murat, married one of Napoleon’s sisters. Murat also served as one of Napoleon’s generals. Life was finally going better than what he had been experiencing before. His reputation was stitched back together again, and his finances were stable, if not overflowing. To put cherry on top, he was later promoted as the Commander of the Interior.
His stellar reputation shone even more when he married Josephine de Beauharnais on March of 1796 in a civil ceremony. Josephine was the widowed wife of a general named Alexandre de Beauharnais, whose head was cut off during the Reign of Terror.
Just two days into their honeymoon, Napoleon left Paris to man the reins of the Army of Italy. His primary goal was to win against Piedmont’s forces before Austria could come to their aid. In what would soon be known as the Montenotte Campaign, Napoleon defeated Piedmont in a solid two weeks.The victories for Napoleon became simultaneous, almost looking effortless as he blazed his way into conquering land after land. The Austrians mustered their best efforts to fight back against Napoleon’s siege, but he parried every strike, conquering Castiglione, Bassano, Arcole, and finally, Rivoli. This notable victory in Rivoli became Austria’s final undoing, their position in Italy utterly crumbled in the dust.
Confusion, Confession and Conviction Page 25