17. “I have taken Goa”: In ibid., 16, 201. See Albuquerque, Commentaries, 3.258; and Diffie and Winius, Foundations, 250–51.
18. “And this is the result”: Albuquerque, Commentaries, 3:260.
19. “often used to say”: Ibid., 3:264.
20. “Then I burned the city”: In Earle and Villiers, Albuquerque, 17.
21. “I am very sure”: In ibid., 81.
22. “Whoever is lord of Malacca”: Pires, Suma Oriental, 2:287.
23. sailed for the Spice Islands: Diffie and Winius, Foundations, 296–300.
24. spice cargoes at Alexandria: Lane, “Venetian Shipping,” 11.
25. seized Gallipoli: Imber, Ottoman Empire, 287–92.
26. “the Sultan gave orders”: In Kortepeter, “Ottoman Imperial Policy,” 89.
27. “won the key”: Sultan Bayezid II, in Kortepeter, “Ottoman Imperial Policy,” 92.
28. destroyed an Ottoman fleet: Brummett, Ottoman Seapower, 69, 116–17.
29. “Urge the Mamluk sultan”: In ibid., 43.
30. “if you desire”: Albuquerque, Commentaries, 2:111–18, in Brummett, Ottoman Seapower, 45.
31. “new charts”: In Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, 25.
32. “freedom for the Muslims of India”: In Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, 68.
33. Sefer Reis: Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, 100–101, 110–14.
34. “the volume of spices”: Da Silva, Corpo Diplomático Portuguez, 9:136, in Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, 115.
35. “in Sind, Cambay, Dabul”: Diogo do Couto, Década, 8a, in Casale, “Ottoman Administration,” 180.
36. spices continued to reach Alexandria: Braudel, Mediterranean, 1:550.
37. “When anger is felt”: In Casale, “Ottoman Administration,” 185–86.
38. different approaches: Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, 143–45.
39. dig canals: Ibid., 135–37.
40. “His Majesty’s Servant Lutfi”: Ibid., 123–29.
41. “500 Turks”: Ibid., 133.
42. twenty thousand Zimba: Ibid., 174–76.
43. Indian merchants: These were known by a variety of names depending on their religion and place of origin. Hindus included banias from Gujarat, Chetties and Kelings (Tamil Nadu), and Oriyas (Orissa); Chulias were Tamil Muslims. See McPherson, Indian Ocean, 155; Prakash, “Indian Maritime Merchant, 1500–1800,” 436, 440–41.
44. manned by Asians: Boxer, Portuguese Seaborne Empire, 57.
45. “without any doubt”: Gemelli Careri (1584), in ibid., 205.
46. “some dying there”: Linschoten, Voyage, 2:230.
47. marry natives: Mathew, Portuguese Trade with India in the Sixteenth Century, 215–16.
48. Surat: Subrahmanyam, “Note on the Rise of Surat,” 32; Prakash, “Indian Maritime Merchant, 1500–1800,” 444, 448, 451; and Chaudhuri, “Surat Revisited,” 18.
49. “When they are still”: Inspector Hendrik Adriaan van Reede tot Drakenstein to the Dutch factors, Feb. 21, 1687; in Prakash, “Indian Maritime Merchant, 1500–1800,” 435.
50. into Mughal coins: Prakash, “Indian Maritime Merchant, 1500–1800,” 442.
51. Mocha: Ibid., 444–46.
52. “King Manuel of Portugal”: In Earle and Villiers, Albuquerque, 79.
53. guns and mercenaries: Glete, Warfare at Sea, 72.
54. about 5 percent: Prakash, “Asian Merchants and the Portuguese Trade in Asia,” 133. There was a range of about 3.5 to 8 percent depending on the port and whether the tax was levied on exports or imports. See Diffie and Winius, Foundations, 321.
55. Nor did possession: Mathew, Portuguese Trade with India in the Sixteenth Century, 210.
56. banning all maritime trade: Wills, “Relations with Maritime Europeans,” 339–40.
57. wokou, “Japanese pirates”: So, Japanese Piracy, 1. The Japanese word is wako.
58. “the Portuguese sailed”: Zhu Wan memorial of Feb. 5, 1548, in So, Japanese Piracy, 55.
59. clocks and other mechanical devices: Zheng, China on the Sea, 141–47.
60. served as middlemen: So, Japanese Piracy, 69.
61. harquebus: Brown, “Impact of Firearms on Japanese Warfare,” 236–39.
62. three hundred thousand Japanese Christians: Sansom, History of Japan, 1334–1615, 372; Massarella, “Jesuits and Japan.”
63. Christianity was outlawed: Sansom, History of Japan, 1615–1867, 39–45.
64. Japan remained off-limits: Sansom, History of Japan, 1334–1615, 176; Elisonas, “Inseparable Trinity,” 262–63.
65. Hideyoshi also: Elisonas, “Inseparable Trinity,” 265–70.
66. “sea captains and fishermen”: In ibid., 264.
67. “On its upper deck”: Yi Pun, “Biography of Yi Sun-sin,” in Yi Sun-sin, Imjin Changch’o, 210.
68. battle of Myeongryang: Elisonas, “Inseparable Trinity,” 287.
69. “a fitting end”: Ballard, Influence of the Sea, 66.
70. reported at Jeddah: Lane, “Mediterranean Spice Trade,” 30–31.
71. per capita consumption: Wake, “Changing Pattern,” 392–95.
72. Malabar pepper crop: Mathew, Portuguese Trade with India in the Sixteenth Century, 213.
73. “responsible for more espionage”: Braudel, Mediterranean, 1:572.
74. grain ships: Brummett, Ottoman Seapower, 135.
75. an elaborate black market: Braudel, Mediterranean, 1:591–94; Imber, Ottoman Empire, 300.
76. growth of Mediterranean trade: Braudel, Mediterranean, 1:616, 622.
77. “capitulations”: Inalcik, “Ottoman State,” 188–95, 188, 374.
78. protection of the French flag: Faroqhi, Ottoman Empire and the World Around It, 60–61, 144–47.
79. large, heavily armed ships: Andrews, Trade, Plunder and Settlement, 99.
80. ignoring papal interdicts: Inalcik, “Ottoman State,” 370, 374, 380.
81. burden of reprisals: Wood, History of the Levant Company, 25–26, 30–31.
82. The Dutch followed: Braudel, Mediterranean, 1:599–602; Inalcik, “Ottoman State,” 375–76.
83. most easily done at Antwerp: Paviot, “Trade Between Portugal and the Southern Netherlands,” 26; Wee, “Structural Changes,” 28–29; and Braudel, Civilization and Capitalism, 3:144–46.
84. “a heavy yearly expenditure”: In Boxer, Dutch Seaborne Empire, 6.
85. a majority of ships: Palmer, The Baltic, 64; Barbour, “Dutch and English Merchant Shipping,” 267.
86. virtually all its naval stores: Barbour, “Dutch and English Merchant Shipping,” 272.
87. sixty-four shares: Israel, Dutch Primacy, 21. A memorandum of the English General Shipowners Society dated Dec. 11, 1823, explains the rationale for dividing a ship evenly—“upon the binary principle of halving the ship, and proportions under each, down to a sixty-fourth part”—that is, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, and 64 shares. Lloyd’s Register, “Infosheet No. 25: 64 Shares,” online at LR.org.
88. fluit: Unger, “Fluit,” 115–23.
89. Antwerp was an early casualty: Wee, “Structural Changes,” 30.
90. encroaching on the English and Hanse trade: Israel, Dutch Primacy, 46–48.
91. “robbed homewards by Flemings”: Purchas, Hakluytus Posthumus, 12:50.
92. “the Russian Mesopotamia”: Kerner, Urge to the Sea, 35.
93. “northwards, north-eastwards”: In Willan, Early History of the Russia Company, 6.
94. more diverse selection: Israel, Dutch Primacy, 44.
95. port at Archangel: Kerner, Urge to the Sea, 179.
96. Muscovy turned to the east: Ibid., 41–43.
97. “being famed for attacking ships”: Remezov Chronicle, 3, in Armstrong, Yermak’s Campaign in Siberia, 91.
98. via river and portage: Armstrong, Yermak’s Campaign in Siberia, 18–19; Hellie, Economy and Material Culture of Russia, 479–81.
99. “no kind of dues”: Charter from Tsar Ivan Vasil’yevich to Grigorey Stroganov, Apr. 4, 1558, in Ar
mstrong, Yermak’s Campaign in Siberia, 281. See Kerner, Urge to the Sea, 73.
100. “a Countrey that hath”: Raleigh, Discoverie of … Guiana (1596), 96.
101. staked competing claims: Simsarian, “The Acquisition of Legal Title to Terra Nullius,” 111, 121–28.
102. “For those who used the sea lines”: Glete, Warfare at Sea, 60.
103. monopolize the use of violence: Rodger, “New Atlantic,” 233–36.
104. “very well treated”: Antonio Barbarigo, in Capponi, Victory of the West, 199.
105. slaves and convicts: Capponi, Victory of the West, 196–98; Imber, Ottoman Empire, 302–7.
106. a new style of rowing: Capponi, Victory of the West, 194–99. A scaloccio is of uncertain derivation, possibly related to the Italian scala, meaning ladder.
107. access to bases: Domingues, “State of Portuguese Naval Forces,” 191–92.
108. Portuguese ship types: Ibid., 195. See Elbl, “Caravel,” 97–87; and Phillips, “Galleon,” 100–102.
109. “the first oceangoing sailing ship”: Domingues, “Portuguese Naval Forces in the Sixteenth Century,” 195. See also Elbl, “Caravel,” 97–87; Phillips, “Galleon,” 100–102.
110. first printed shipbuilding manual: Diego García de Palacio’s Instrucion nauthica, para el buen uso y regimiento de las naos su traça, y govierno conforme à la altura de México (Nautical instruction, for the good use and management of ships, their design, and conduct in accordance with the latitude of Mexico), published in Mexico City. See Ferreiro, Ships and Science, 47.
111. trend toward gigantism: The Danish Engelen and Maria displaced about 1,500–2,000 tons, the Grand François proved too big to sail, and The Historie and Chronicles of Scotland describes James IV’s Michael as “the greatest scheip and maist [most] of strength that ewer saillit Ingland or France” (Macdougall, “ ‘Greatest Scheip That Ewer Saillit’ ”).
112. English naval establishment: Rodger, Safeguard of the Sea, 221–37.
113. Sound tolls: Glete, Warfare at Sea, 114–15.
114. favor shown the Dutch: Brand, “Habsburg Diplomacy During the Holland-Wend War,” 122–23.
115. formation of a Swedish navy: Glete, “Naval Power and Control of the Sea,” 220–23.
116. galleass: Capponi, Victory of the West, 191–92; Guilmartin, Gunpowder and Galleys, 246; and Martin and Parker, Spanish Armada, 271–73.
117. excellent gun platform: Rodger, “Guns and Sails,” 82–85; Guilmartin, Gunpowder and Galleys, 107–9.
118. “crudely”: Rodger, “Development of Broadside Gunnery,” 306.
119. Scandinavian Seven Years’ War: Glete, “Naval Power and Control of the Sea,” 217–32; Glete, Warfare at Sea, 116–24.
120. one shot per hour: Rodger, Command of the Ocean, 17.
121. Curzolari Islands: Capponi, Victory of the West, 253–57.
122. “You have shaved”: In Parker, “Lepanto,” 263. See Capponi, Victory of the West, 296–313; and Lane, Venice, 374.
123. battle off the island of São Miguel: Glete, Warfare at Sea, 155–56; Padfield, Tide of Empires, 129–30. The battle is also called also Punta Delgada and, mistakenly, Terceira.
124. “convenient and fit harbor”: Drake, World Encompassed, 64.
125. “ordered the ship itself”: Letter from Bernardino de Mendoza, Spanish ambassador at London, to Philip II, Jan. 9, 1581, in Sugden, Sir Francis Drake, 150.
126. “piratically taken”: In Sugden, Sir Francis Drake, 145.
127. this formidable assemblage: Rodger, Safeguard of the Sea, 259, 269.
128. “But unless God helps us”: Anonymous officer to a papal diplomat, in ibid., 259.
129. “irretrievable miscarriage”: Corbett, Successors of Drake, vi; Thompson, War and Government, 185–97.
16. State and Sea in the Age of European Expansion
1. “ledger and sword”: This is the title of Beckles Willson’s two-volume Ledger and Sword; or, The Honorable Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies (1599–1874) (London: Longmans, Green, 1903).
2. merchant ships captured: Davis, Rise of the English Shipping Industry, 51.
3. Philip III banned: Israel, Dutch Primacy, 56–73.
4. routine destruction of logbooks: This may be one reason that no indigenous maps of Southeast Asia have survived, although their existence is known from accounts by European travelers and geographers, including Ludovico de Varthema, a Bolognese merchant who reached Southeast Asia shortly before the arrival of the Portuguese, and the Venetian diplomat Giovanni Ramusio, as well as from a letter by Afonso de Albuquerque to Manuel. See Gelpke, “Afonso de Albuquerque’s Map,” 76–77.
5. “Goa, and the Indies”: Linschoten, Voyage, 1:42.
6. sixty-five ships: Gaastra, Dutch East India Company, 17.
7. commercial treaties: Parry, Establishment of the European Hegemony, 88.
8. “established … solely”: In Steensgaard, Asian Trade Revolution, 132. Earlier companies may have sought to trade in peace, but they did not sail unarmed. The states of Holland and Zeeland had furnished ships’ guns, small arms, and other weaponry gratis. See Israel, Dutch Primacy, 67.
9. “The great East India Company”: In Steensgaard, Asian Trade Revolution, 128n41.
10. “a great town”: In Blussé, “Brief Encounter at Macao,” 651–52.
11. capture of the Santa Catarina: Ittersum, “Hugo Grotius in Context,” 518.
12. “it is lawful”: Grotius, The Free Sea, chap. 1 (p. 10). Grotius refined his defense of Van Heemskerck in De Jure Belli ac Pacis (On the Law of War and Peace, 1625).
13. “known continents”: In Knecht, Renaissance Warrior and Patron, 375.
14. “that he did not send”: Cardinal of Toledo to the Emperor, Jan. 27, 1541, in Biggar, Collection of Documents, 190.
15. “the sea & trade”: Hakluyt, “Whither an Englishman May Trade into the West Indies with Certain Answers to the Popes Bull,” in Armitage, Ideological Origins of the British Empire, 108. Hakluyt’s chief work is The Principal Navigations, Voiages, Traffiqves and Discoueries of the English Nation (1598–1600). Following his death, Samuel Purchas enlarged upon this influential work with publication of Haklvytvs posthumus; or, Pvrchas his Pilgrimes…(1625). Hakluyt’s last publication was an English translation of Grotius’s Mare Liberum.
16. Of the Dominion, or, Ownership of the Sea: Armitage, Ideological Origins of the British Empire, 108–9; Berkowitz, John Selden’s Formative Years, 52.
17. “Customs of so many Nations”: Selden, Of the Dominion, 44, in Thornton, “John Selden’s Response,” 112.
18. “sea-territory of the British Empire”: Selden, Of the Dominion, 459, in Thornton, “John Selden’s Response,” 121–22.
19. preserve their own monopoly: Knaap and Sutherland, Monsoon Traders, 20–22.
20. a fixed share: Marshall, “English in Asia,” 271.
21. Spanish colony at Manila: Israel, Dutch Primacy, 172–73.
22. Batavia was a city: Blussé, Visible Cities, 37–40.
23. “The Chinese are the only bees”: In Andrade, “Rise and Fall of Dutch Taiwan,” 431, 441; Ts’ao, “Taiwan as an Entrepot,” 96–100; Blussé, “Brief Encounter at Macao,” 663; and Reed, “Colonial Origins of Manila and Batavia.”
24. Zheng Chenggong: Struve, “Southern Ming,” 666–67, 710–25; Wills, “Maritime China,” 215, 226–28.
25. the Manchus ordered: Antony, Like Froth Floating on the Sea, 35–36.
26. lifted the prohibition: Ts’ao, “Taiwan as an Entrepot,” 103.
27. government-issued vermilion seals: Blussé, Visible Cities, 20–21.
28. “four gates”: Tsuruta, “Establishment and Characteristics,” 30–31; Shapinsky, “Polyvocal Portolans,” 19.
29. The Dutch hoped to trade: Blussé, “Divesting a Myth,” 396.
30. “Company officials”: F. Valentijn, Van Oud en Nieuw Oost-Indiën (Dordrecht, 1724–26), vol. 5b, p. 165, in Blussé, Visible Cities, 21.
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br /> 31. tear down their warehouse: Blussé, Visible Cities, 22.
32. Japanese silver: Arasaratnam, Maritime India, 79.
33. East India Company alone shipped: Marshall, “English in Asia,” 269.
34. “Bring us textiles”: Van Heemskerck to the Directors of the United Amsterdam Company, Aug. 27, 1603, in Ittersum, “Hugo Grotius in Context,” 534.
35. Gujarati merchants: Arasaratnam, Maritime India, 58.
36. corridors of political power: Steensgaard, Asian Trade Revolution, 120.
37. low-value, high-volume goods: Marshall, “English in Asia,” 274–75.
38. negotiating with the English and Dutch: Arasaratnam, Maritime India, 61–64; Furber, Rival Empires of Trade, 40.
39. deeply invested: Arasaratnam, Maritime India, 76.
40. building merchant ships: Barendse, “Shipbuilding in Seventeenth-Century Western India,” 179; Qaisar, “Shipbuilding in the Mughal Empire.”
41. Shah Jahan: Prakash, “Indian Maritime Merchant, 1500–1800,” 446.
42. rupees: Haider, “Structure and Movement of Wages,” 305.
43. Bengal merchants preferred: Arasaratnam, “India and the Indian Ocean,” 121.
44. Siddis of Janjira: Ali, African Dispersal in the Deccan, 157–92.
45. a coherent naval strategy: Kulkarni, “Marathas and the Sea,” 210; this is known from Ramchandra Pant Amatya’s Adnyapatra (royal edict), written before 1717, but after Shivaji’s death.
46. the port was riven: Das Gupta, “Maritime Merchant of India,” 99.
47. Mulla Abdul Ghafur: Ibid., 94–100.
48. Henry Avery: Ritchie, Captain Kidd, 85–89; Das Gupta, Indian Merchants, 98–99.
49. not all English were pirates: Furber, Rival Empires of Trade, 40.
50. The Omani reconquest: Ames, “Straits of Hurmuz Fleets”; Bathurst, “Maritime Trade and Imamate Government,” 96–103.
51. “by which happy result”: Ioannes De Laet, Historie ofte Iaerlijke Verhael van de verrichtinghen der Geoctroyeerde West-Indische Compagnie (History, or the True Story of the Operations of the Honorable West India Company), 2:4–5, in Goslinga, Dutch in the Caribbean, 168.
52. “for his lack of care”: In Phillips, Six Galleons, 5.
53. Heyn predeceased him: Stradling, Armada of Flanders, 78–79.
54. sugar was more valuable: Padfield, Tide of Empires, 162.
The Sea and Civilization: A Maritime History of the World Page 91