17. Winthrop Jordan, White over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550–1812 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1968), passim.
18. Peter Kolchin, Unfree Labor: American Slavery and Russian Serfdom (Cambridge: Belknap, 1987).
19. Jack P. Greene, Imperatives, Behaviors, and Identities: Essays in Early American Cultural History (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1992).
20. Jordan, White over Black, 104–39.
21. Jeremy Atack and Peter W. Passell, A New Economic View of American History, 2nd ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1994).
22. Jordan, White over Black, 325–31, 356–57.
23. Scholars continue to debate the direction and intent of the Founders on the issue of slavery. William H. Freehling has argued that both the Northwest Ordinance and the abolition of the slave trade constituted important victories on the road to abolition (“The Founding Fathers and Slavery,” American Historical Review, February 1972, 81–93). William Cohen contends that Thomas Jefferson was committed publicly to ending slavery through at least 1784, when he supported the Ordinance of 1784 (“Thomas Jefferson and the Problem of Slavery,” Journal of American History, December 1969, 503–26); also see Paul Finkleman Slavery and the Founders: Race and Liberty in the Age of Jefferson (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1996).
24. William W. Freehling, “The Founding Fathers: Conditional Anti-Slavery and the Nationalists of the American Revolution,” in The Reintegration of American History: Slavery and the Civil War, William W. Freehling, ed. (New York: Oxford, 1994), 12–33.
25. On the transition of power from the governors to the legislatures, see Robert J. Dinkin, Voting in Provincial America: A Study of Elections in the Thirteen Colonies, 1689–1776 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1977); Robert E. Brown, Middle-Class Democracy and the Revolution in Massachusetts, 1691–1780 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1955); J. R. Pole, “Representation and Authority in Virginia from the Revolution to Reform,” Journal of Southern History, February 1958, 16–50; Jack P. Green, “The Role of the Lower Houses of Assembly in 18th Century Politics,” Journal of Southern History, November 1961, 451–74.
26. Esmond Wright, The Search for Liberty: From Origins to Independence (Oxford: Blackwell, 1995), 327; Bernard Bailyn and Philip D. Morgan, eds., Strangers Within the Realm (Williamsburg, VA: Institute of Early American History and Culture, 1991); Bernard Bailyn, The Peopling of British North America (New York: Knopf, 1986).
27. David S. Landes, The Unbound Prometheus: Technical Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969); Joel Mokyr, The Lever of Riches (New York: Oxford, 1990).
28. Lawrence Harper, “Mercantilism and the American Revolution,” Canadian Historical Review, 23 (1942), 1–15; Robert P. Thomas, “A Quantitative Approach to the Study of the Effects of British Imperial Policy on Colonial Welfare,” Journal of Economic History, 25 (1965), 615–38.
29. Paul Johnson, A History of the American People (New York: HarperCollins, 1997), 91.
30. R. J. Brugger, Maryland: A Middle Temperament, 1634–1980 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988), 87.
31. Thomas Doerflinger, A Vigorous Spirit of Enterprise: Merchants and Economic Development in Revolutionary Philadelphia (New York: W. W. Norton, 1986), 351.
32. John J. McCusker and Russel B. Menard, The Economy of British America, 1607–1789 (Chapel Hill: Institute of Early American History and Culture and the University of North Carolina Press, 1985).
33. Schweikart, Entrepreneurial Adventure, 43; Alice Hanson Jones, Wealth of a Nation to Be: The American Colonies on the Eve of Revolution (New York: Columbia University Press, 1980).
34. Bernard Bailyn, et al, The Great Republic: A History of the American People, 3rd ed., (Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath, 1985), 89–90.
35. Marjorie Marion Spector, The American Department of the British Government, 1768–82 (New York: Octagon Books, 1976 [1940]).
36. H. H. Peckham, The Colonial Wars, 1689–1762 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964); Max Savelle, Empires to Nations: Expansion in North America (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1974); D. E. Leach, Roots of Conflict: British Armed Forces and Colonial Americans, 1677–1763 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986).
37. James T. Flexner, George Washington: The Forge of Experience, 1732–75 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1965).
38. Douglas Southall Freeman, George Washington: A Biography, vol. 3. (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1948–1957), 89.
39. France’s victory at Fort William Henry and its shameful role in the massacre that the Indians soon perpetrated was immortalized in James Fenimore Cooper’s classic novel, The Last of the Mohicans: A Narrative of 1757 (New York: State University of New York Press, 1983).
40. Francis Parkman and C. Vann Woodward, Montcalm and Wolfe (Cambridge, MA: DaCapo Press, 2001).
41. Fred Anderson, Crucible of War: The Seven Years’ War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766 (New York: Vintage, 2001).
42. Gordon S. Wood, The Radicalism of the American Revolution (New York: Knopf, 1992).
43. Lawrence Gipson, The Coming of the American Revolution, 1763–1775 (New York: Harper, 1954); Richard Johnson, Adjustment to Empire: The New England Colonies, 1675–1715 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1981).
Chapter 3. Colonies No More, 1763–83
1. Barbara Graymont, The Iroquois in the American Revolution (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1972); Francis Jennins, The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire (New York: W. W. Norton, 1984); Richard Aquila, The Iroquois Restoration: Iroquois Diplomacy on the Colonial Frontier, 1701–1754 (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1997).
2. Gregory E. Dowd, A Spirited Resistance: The North American Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745–1815 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992); Howard Peckham, Pontiac and the Indian Uprising (New York: Russell and Russell, 1970).
3. Jack Sosin, Whitehall and the Wilderness: The Middle West in British Colonial Policy, 1760–1775 (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1961).
4. Dale Van Every, Forth to the Wilderness: The First American Frontier, 1754–1774 (New York: Morrow, 1961).
5. Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
6. Jack M. Sosin, The Revolutionary Frontier, 1763–1783 (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967); John W. Shy, Toward Lexington: The Role of the British Army in the Coming of the American Revolution (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1065).
7. Lawrence H. Gipson, The British Empire Before the American Revolution (New York: Knopf, 1954); Bernard Donoughue, British Politics and the American Revolution: The Path to War (London: Macmillan, 1964).
8. Lawrence Harper, “Mercantilism and the American Revolution,” Canadian Historical Review, 23 (1942), 1–15; Peter McClelland, “The Cost to America of British Imperial Policy,” American Economic Review, 59 (1969), 370–81.
9. Bernard Bailyn, New England Merchants in the Seventeenth Century (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1955). Compare his assessment with the class-struggle model (rejected here) of Gary B. Nash, The Urban Crucible: The Northern Seaports and the Origins of the American Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, abridged, 1986).
10. Pauline Maier, The Old Revolutionaries: Political Lives in the Age of Samuel Adams (New York: Knopf, 1980); and A. J. Langguth, Patriots: The Men who Started the American Revolution (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1988).
11. William B. Willcox, ed., The Papers of Benjamin Franklin (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974), 18:102.
12. Winston Churchill, The Great Republic: A History of America (New York: Random House, 1999), 57.
13. George III quoted in Churchill, Great Republic, 58.
14. Chitwood, History of Colonial America, 517; Alan Brinkley, American History: A Survey, 9th ed., Vol. I
(New York: McGraw-Hill, 1995), 104.
15. Oliver M. Dickerson, The Navigation Acts and the American Revolution (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1951).
16. Paul Johnson, A History of the American People (New York: HarperCollins, 1997), 133; Esmund Wright, Franklin of Philadelphia (Cambridge: Belknap/Harvard, 1986).
17. Peter D. G. Thomas, The Townshend Duties Crisis: The Second Phase of the American Revolution, 1767–1773 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987); and his Tea Party to Independence: The Third Phase of the American Revolution, 1773–1776 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991).
18. Jerrilyn Marston, King and Congress: The Transfer of Political Legitamacy, 1774–1776 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987).
19. Schweikart, Entrepreneurial Adventure, chap. 1.
20. Charles Royster, A Revolutionary People at War: The Continental Army and American Character, 1775–1783 (Chapel Hill, North Carolina: Institute of Early American History and Culture and University of North Carolina Press, 1979), 6.
21. Johnson, History of the American People, 133; Edmund S. Morgan and Helen M. Morgan, The Stamp Act Crisis (New York: Collier, 1962).
22. Adams quoted in Marvin Olasky, Telling the Truth: How to Revitalize Christian Journalism (Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books, 1996), 116.
23. Peter D. G. Thomas, British Politics and the Stamp Act Crisis: The First Phase of the American Revolution, 1763–1767 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975).
24. Schweikart, Entrepreneurial Adventure, “The Economics of Business,” 54.
25. Chitwood, History of Colonial America, 522.
26. Ibid., 523.
27. Bernard Bailyn and J. B. Hench, eds., The Press and the American Revolution (Worcester, MA: American Antequarian Society, 1980); Thomas C. Leonard, The Power of the Press: The Birth of American Political Reporting (New York: Oxford, 1996); and Charles E. Clark, The Public Prints: The Newspaper in Anglo-American Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994).
28. Wright, The Search for Liberty, 437.
29. L. H. Butterfield, ed., The Adams Papers: The Diary and Autobiography of John Adams (Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press, 1961), entry of August 14, 1769.
30. David Hackett Fischer, Paul Revere’s Ride (New York: Oxford, 1994), appendix D.
31. Johnson, History of the American People, 142.
32. T. H. Breen, The Tobacco Culture: The Mentality of the Great Tidewater Planters on the Eve of the Revolution (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985).
33. Thomas Miller, ed., The Selected Writings of John Witherspoon (Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 1990), 140–41.
34. James H. Hutson, Religion and the Founding of the American Republic (Washington, DC: The Library of Congress, 1998).
35. M. Stanton Evans, The Theme Is Freedom: Religion, Politics, and the American Tradition (Washington: Regnery, 1994), 99.
36. Woodrow Wilson, A History of the American People, vol. 2 (New York: Harper & Bros, 1902), 215.
37. Fischer, Paul Revere’s Ride, 64.
38. Thomas Hobbes, The Leviathan (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967 [1651]).
39. John Locke, Two Treatises of Government, Peter Laslett, ed., (New York: Mentor, 1965 [1690]); The Works of John Locke, 10 vols., (London: n.p. 1823).
40. Charles Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws, trans. Anne Cohler, et al. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
41. Bernard Bailyn, The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967).
42. Mark A. Beliles and Stephen K. McDowell, America’s Providential History (Charlottesville, VA: Providence Foundation, 1989), 146.
43. Peter Marshall and David Manuel, The Light and the Glory (Old Tappan, NJ: Fleming H. Revell Co., 1977), 309.
44. Roger Finke and Rodney Stark, The Churching of America, 1776–1990: Winners and Losers in Our Religious Economy (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1992), 15–16.
45. Finke and Stark, Churching of America, 65.
46. Fischer, Paul Revere’s Ride, 152.
47. Ibid., 153.
48. Michael Bellesiles, “The Origins of Gun Culture in the United States, 1760–1865,” Journal of American History, September 1996, and his Arming America: The Origins of a National Gun Culture (New York: Knopf, 2000).
49. Clayton E. Cramer, “Gun Scarcity in the Early Republic?” unpublished paper available at www. ggnra.org/cramer, and his Concealed Weapon Laws of the Early Republic (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1999). Also see John Shy, A People Numerous and Armed: Reflections on the Military Struggle for American Independence (New York: Oxford, 1976).
50. Fischer, Paul Revere’s Ride, 150–55.
51. Jim R. McClellan, Changing Interpretations of America’s Past: The Pre-Colonial Period Through the Civil War, 2nd ed., vol. 1 (Guilford, CT: Dushkin-McGraw-Hill, 2000), 135.
52. John P. Galvin, The Minutemen: The First Fight: Myths and Realities of the American Revolution (Washington, D.C.: Brassey’s, 1989).
53. Ralph Waldo Emerson, “The Minuteman,” in Mayo W. Hazeltine, ed., Masterpieces of Eloquence: Famous Orations of Great World Leaders from Early Greece to the Present Times (New York: P. F. Collier & Son, 1905), 6001–2.
54. Benjamin Franklin to David Hartley, May 8, 1775, in William B. Willcox, ed., The Papers of Benjamin Franklin, vol. 22 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982), 34.
55. Fischer, Paul Revere’s Ride, 155.
56. George Bancroft, History of the United States, vol. 4 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1855), 12.
57. Douglas Southall Freeman, George Washington: A Biography, 7 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1948–1957), 3:454.
58. Freeman, George Washington, 3:453; George Washington to Joseph Reed, November 28, 1775, in The Writings of George Washington, ed. John C. Fitzpatrick, from the Original Manuscript Sources…, Prepared Under the Direction of the United States George Washington Bicentennial Commission, 39 vols., (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1931–1944), IV: 124.
59. Charles Royster, A Revolutionary People at War: The Continental Army and American Character, 1775–1783 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press and Institute of Early American History and Culture, 1979), 29.
60. Quoted in Royster, A Revolutionary People at War, 29.
61. Franklin to Charles Lee, February 11, 1776, Papers of Benjamin Franklin, vol. 22, 343.
62. Chitwood, History of Colonial America, 546.
63. Victor Davis Hamson, Courage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise of Western Power (New York: Anchor / Doubleday, 2002).
64. Royster, A Revolutionary People at War, 281.
65. George Washington to the President of Congress, December 27, 1776, in Fitzpatrick, Writings of George Washington, vol. 6, 444.
66. George Washington to John Cadwalader, December 27, 1776, in Fitzpatrick, Writings of George Washington, 6:446.
67. Thomas Paine, Common Sense and the Crisis (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1973), 69.
68. Constantine G. Guzman, “Old Dominion, New Republic: Making Virginia Republican, 1776–1840,” Ph.D. diss., University of Virginia, 1999.
69. Page Smith, John Adams, 1735–1784, vol. 1 (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1962), 270.
70. Larry Schweikart, ed., Readings in Western Civilization, 2nd ed. (Boston: Pearson Custom, 2000), 9–14.
71. Pauline Meier, American Scripture: Making the Declaration of Independence (New York: Knopf, 1997), 134.
72. Scot A. French and Edward L. Ayers, “The Strange Career of Thomas Jefferson: Race and Slavery in American Memory, 1943–1993,” in Peter S. Onuf, ed., Jeffersonian Legacies (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1993), 418–56.
73. George Washington to the president of the Congress, December 23, 1777, Writings of George Washington, 10:194–95.
74. Chitwood, History of Colonial America, 572.
75. Russell Weigley, The American Way of War: A History of United States Military History and Policy (Bloomington,
IN: Indiana University Press, 1973).
76. Franklin and Mary Wickwire, Cornwallis: The American Adventure (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970), 386.
77. Wright, The Search for Liberty, 482.
78. Richard Morris, The Peacemakers: The Great Powers and American Independence (New York: Harper & Row, 1965).
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