Conclusion
Scientific research reveals that psychological skills training, which includes components of relaxation, attention control, and body checking, can enhance running economy and bolster running performances. Positive imagery and centering also seem to upgrade running capacity. Finally, the establishment of a motivation profile that includes task orientation, a mastery climate, and relatively little focus on perfectionism appears to be best for avoiding burnout during training and consequently creating the best-possible running performances.
Chapter 50
Addictive Aspects of Running
Some runners are involved in their running training for reasons other than, or in addition to, improving fitness or running a fast 5K: They rely on running to maintain a normal mood state. When this happens, running can become a kind of addiction, with classic symptoms of withdrawal occurring when running is taken away because of injury, schedule conflicts, or family commitments; in contrast, at other times running can produce a sense of contentment or near euphoria when workouts are undertaken and completed.1, 2
Research reveals that individuals addicted to running often display significant forms of psychological distress such as nervousness, depression, and anger whenever a running workout is missed or curtailed. In this sense, running can become somewhat like other traditional addictive behaviors such as drug taking and gambling, with the classic trio of dependency, withdrawal, and tolerance (i.e., the need for more and more running as training proceeds) being displayed.3 For some runners, training becomes a compulsive activity because of its mood-regulating properties.3 Of course, when running becomes addictive, it usually does not feature the same extreme negative behaviors associated with other addictions, such as breaking the law to obtain drugs or destroying financial stability to engage in gambling. However the negative effects of a running addiction can still be debilitating.
The presence of exercise dependence and addiction among runners was addressed in a study involving 60 members (30 males and 30 females) of a running club who were preparing for a major competition.4 From this group, 15 men and 15 women were randomly selected to miss their next scheduled training session (the exercise-deprived group) while the remaining 30 runners continued their training uninterrupted (the controls). The exercise-deprived runners reported significant withdrawal-like symptoms of depressed mood; reduced energy levels; and increased tension, anger, fatigue and confusion within 24 hours after the missed workout. Exercise-deprived runners even displayed elevated heart rates. Control-group runners showed no changes in mood or resting heart rate.
Runner’s High
Running can become addictive in part because substantial levels of endogenous opiates, opium-like compounds that can be synthesized and released by nerve cells within the brain, are produced during intense or prolonged running workouts. This process stimulates reward pathways within the brain and provides a sort of runner’s high that can be psychologically satisfying to many runners.
Running can also trigger the release of catecholamines (adrenaline and noradrenaline) that have a stimulating and pleasantly arousing effect on the nervous system and various physiological functions. Finally, a strenuous running workout can also stimulate dopaminergic brain areas (i.e., parts of the brain that produce dopamine, a chemical that helps regulate mood) and can thus have a significantly positive impact on emotional state.5
Research reveals that the endorphin response to running, which is the presumed basis for the runner’s high phenomenon, varies greatly among runners. In some runners, endorphins are released after about 30 minutes of intense running; such runners tend to favor shorter, high-quality workouts and 5K to 10-K competitions. Among other runners, endorphins are not released in significant quantities until 90 to 120 minutes of submaximal running have been completed; these individuals tend to favor high-volume training and often are confirmed marathoners. Finally, some individuals produce very little endorphin in response to running training; such individuals are often relatively uncommitted to regular running. Some observers of the running scene have proposed that a runner’s best event is the one that produces the greatest endorphin release—and thus is practiced for the most.
Running Dependency
Running dependence has often been called a “positive addiction” because of running’s numerous beneficial effects on overall health (see chapter 41). In one sense, a dependency on running may lie on the healthy end of the addiction spectrum, perhaps with compulsive buying and Internet addiction in the middle and drug addiction and gambling on the unhealthy side.6 In many cases, running addiction is probably relatively harmless aside from injuries caused by overtraining, and the health benefits associated with running (e.g., a decreased risk of cancer, heart disease, type 2 diabetes) would certainly seem to outweigh the negative effects of exercise dependence. Science indicates, however, that exercise addiction is often linked with bulimia or some other form of eating disorder,7, 8 conditions which—especially in female runners—can lead to reduced bone density, an increased risk of stress fractures, and amenorrhea (in females).
Running can certainly be a very healthy habit, and it is very natural and normal for runners to be temporarily disappointed and frustrated when a workout cannot be completed and to be happy and satisfied when a training session or competition goes well. But some runners do cross the line from a psychologically productive engagement with running to an unhealthy addiction. The physiological mechanisms for endorphin release discussed in the previous section provide positive benefits but can also help to explain the occurrence of such running dependencies. Psychological state also has an effect on the risk of exercise dependence, with some research suggesting that those runners who exhibit perfectionist personality traits tend to be more likely to develop an exercise addiction.9 A correlation has also been found between general anxiety level and exercise dependency: The greater the general anxiety, the stronger the dependence on running.10 Depression also heightens the likelihood of running addiction as do disordered eating habits and anorexia; 40 to 50 percent of individuals with eating disorders exhibit a corresponding exercise addiction. Ultra runners tend to have a higher risk of running addiction compared with marathoners and 5K and 10K specialists,11 and individuals who are work addicted also tend to have an exercise addiction.
Defining a Running Addiction
The presence of a running addiction is based on the following criteria:9
Tolerance. A runner must gradually increase the amount of running in order to achieve the desired effect, whether it is a kind of psychological buzz or a sense of accomplishment.
Withdrawal. In the absence of a running workout, a runner experiences negative effects such as anxiety, irritability, restlessness, or sleep problems.
Lack of control. Attempts at reducing one’s amount of running or even ceasing running for a certain period of time are unsuccessful.
Intention effect. A runner is unable to stick to his or her routine and consistently exceeds the intended or planned amount of running.
Time. An unusually great amount of time is spent preparing for, engaging in, and recovering from running.
Reduction in other activities. As a direct result of the commitment to running, healthy occupational, social, or recreational activities occur less often or are stopped.
Continuance. A runner continues to engage in running training despite knowing that the training is creating or exacerbating physical, psychological, or interpersonal problems.
One study of running addiction and eating disorders featuring 265 female runners and nonrunners ages 20 to 35 included 66 nonrunners, 69 low-intensity runners, 67 medium-intensity runners, and 63 high-intensity runners.12 The higher-intensity runners in this research were the leanest and lowest in body fat—and scored highest on eating disorder measures and exercise addiction. Twenty-five percent of the women who ran more than 30 miles (48 km) per week had Eating Attitude Test (EAT) scores that indicated a high risk for anorexia. It is not clear whether the des
ire to be a high-level runner increases the risk of running addiction and eating disorder or whether a fundamental psychological problem pushes some female runners into becoming high-intensity, addicted, and unhealthy from a food-intake standpoint. However, it is clear that a running addiction may be a marker of psychological problems that need to be addressed.
A practical danger for the exercise-dependent runner is that he or she may be at higher risk for overtraining (i.e., performing an amount or intensity of training for which the body cannot adapt satisfactorily and indeed which might harm rather than help overall fitness). A relatively straightforward test—the Exercise Addiction Inventory—has been developed which is a valid and reliable way to identify runners affected by, or at risk of, exercise addiction.13
Overcoming a Running Addiction
The remedies for running dependence are varied and would appear to be highly individual.14 There is some evidence that the analysis of one’s reasons for running and a search for the meaning of running (i.e., what it signifies or symbolizes to the individual) appears to lessen the severity of exercise dependence.15 Therapies associated with the treatment of other addictions, including efforts leading to the gaining of greater self-esteem and self-understanding, appear to be beneficial for the treatment of exercise dependency.12 When running is used to overcome anxiety or depression, the development of other ways of combating anxiousness and depressive symptoms will decrease the risk of running addiction.15
An intriguing aspect of running addiction is that few addicted runners seek professional advice or rehab for their dependencies. When they do appear in a doctor’s office, it is usually in a sports medicine—rather than psychiatric—setting, and the presenting problem is often a case of severe plantar fasciitis, a stress fracture, or a serious bout of Achilles tendonitis rather than an abusive relationship with running. Running addicts often have trouble recovering from such injuries because they are quite reluctant to stop—or even temporarily reduce—their training. In one study on exercise addiction, a researcher could not get a subset of his subjects to stop training no matter how much money he offered them.16 Clearly, treatment in such cases involves identifying and dealing with the family, occupational, or internal stressors that are creating the addiction.
Conclusion
Although a running addiction can produce seemingly great physical health, it can also thwart the development of a rewarding and productive social and professional life, and it can be a way of avoiding issues that are producing unhappiness and depression. Treatment of a running addiction first involves the acknowledgment that the dependency exists; then, the focus can be on the addicted-runner’s conception that running is always good even if it is carried out in an obsessive or driven manner. The ultimate goal is to enjoy the innumerable positive aspects of running without letting running dominate life to such an extent that negative consequences can occur. Running is just one of the many ways in which happiness can be achieved and self-esteem advanced.
Epilogue: The Future of Running
The science of running has an exciting future, partly because the causes of that basic performance-limiting factor called fatigue are not yet completely understood. Research will continue to trim away at fatigue’s clouded veil, and those inquiries will lead to breakthroughs in training and preparations for all races ranging from 100 meters to the ultramarathon.
Many of the investigations will continue to explore various aspects of the anticipatory regulation of training and other research will focus on specific forms of strength training for running, examining which strength routines and drills provide the biggest performance bonus for runners. Likewise, lactate—and the best training methods for improving lactate-threshold velocity—will remain in the spotlight, as will nutritional supplements for running and optimal psychological strategies for reaching a performance peak.
A reasonable prediction is that the top endurance runners of the future will spend much less time logging miles at submaximal paces and much more time focusing on high-quality running training plus the kinds of workouts that boost explosiveness, maximal running speed, resistance to fatigue, running-specific strength, and coordination as defined in this book.
Running itself is poised for several decades of exhilarating performances. For example, elite men have set their sights on completing a marathon in under 2 hours, and elite women are ready to attack 2:12 for that race. To run a 2-hour marathon, an elite male runner would have to average 68 seconds per 400 meters during the competition. That means he would have to be capable of 65 seconds per 400 for a half-marathon and 62 seconds per 400 for the 10K, which would be a world record (based on current times) of 25:48!
On the women’s side, an elite female runner would have to average 75 seconds per 400 meters to hit 2:12 for the race—about 26 consecutive miles at a tempo of 5 minutes per mile! She would have to be able to run at 72 seconds per 400 in the half marathon and 69 seconds per 400 for the 10K, which would produce a world record of 28:45, currently a reasonably good elite male’s time. These exciting breakthroughs in performance—and others like them—will be guided by the science of running.
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Chapter 2 Genes That Influence Performance
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