by Bibek Debroy
‘“Shuka said, ‘In the words of ordinary people, the words of the Vedas are contradictory. In matters of proof, when there is such a conflict, which is then the sacred text? I wish to hear about this. O illustrious one! Tell me about it. How should one act, so as not to violate any rites that have been laid down?’”
‘Bhishma said, “Having been thus addressed, Gandhavati’s son368 spoke to his son. The rishi honoured the words that his infinitely energetic son had spoken. ‘Whether a person is a householder, a brahmachari, in the vanaprashta stage or a mendicant, if he undertakes all the prescribed tasks, he attains the supreme objective. Even if a person follows any one of these ashramas in the appropriate way and is free from desire and hatred, he will obtain greatness after death. These are four steps in a ladder that vests with the brahman. By resorting to this ladder, a person obtains greatness in Brahma’s world. For one quarter of the life, a person should follow brahmacharya, without any malice. Learned about dharma and artha, he should dwell with his preceptor or with his preceptor’s son. He must be compliant and must not censure anybody. Having performed all his tasks, he must study with his preceptor, but only when his preceptor has summoned him for a lesson. In his preceptor’s house, he must eat and sleep after his preceptor, and awake before his preceptor does. A disciple must perform all the tasks that a servant would have. Having done all this, he must stand at the side. He must be like a servant who performs all tasks and is accomplished in all the duties. He must be pure and skilled. He must possess all the qualities. He must be limited and pleasant in speech. He must conquer his senses and must not look at his preceptor with fierce eyes. He must not eat before he has eaten. He must not drink before he has drunk. He must not be seated before he has sat down. He must not sleep before he has slept. He must gently touch his preceptor’s feet with upturned palms and knead them, the right with the right and the left with the left. He must respectfully greet his preceptor and say, “O illustrious one! Instruct me. I have done this. O illustrious one! I will do whatever else you ask me to.” Having told him all this, he must offer all his riches to the preceptor. He must again tell his preceptor about all the tasks that he has undertaken and ask about what needs to be done. There are some scents and tastes a brahmachari must refrain from. However, it is the determination of dharma that once he has graduated, he can use these again. These are the detailed rules that have been laid down for a brahmachari. Practising all these, he must remain near his preceptor. To the best of his strength, he must try to please his preceptor. Having done this, the disciple can move on from this ashrama to another ashrama and observe the duties of that. One quarter of his life will thus be spent on the vows of the Vedas and fasting. Having given the dakshina to the preceptor, following the prescribed ordinances, he will graduate. Desiring to accomplish dharma, he will follow dharma and ignite a fire,369 accepting a wife. This is the state of a householder, in which, he spends the second quarter of his life.’”’
Chapter 1563(235)
‘“Vyasa said, ‘For the second quarter of his life, he will dwell in a house, in the state of a householder. Desiring to pursue dharma, he will follow good vows, ignite a fire and accept a wife. Wise and learned ones have laid down four kinds of conduct for a householder. The first of these is to maintain a store of grain, the second to maintain a pot of grain, the third is not to provide for tomorrow, while the last is to follow the conduct of pigeons.370 If one desires to follow dharma and conquer the worlds, in progressive order, the succeeding one is superior to the preceding one.371 A person who follows the first must undertake six tasks.372 A person who follows the second must undertake three.373 A person who follows the third must undertake two.374 The fourth will only base himself on sacrifices to Brahma.375 The dharma of a householder is said to be great. However, one must not cook only for one’s own self. Nor should animals pointlessly be slaughtered.376 If an animal or an inanimate being377 is to be brought down, the ordinances of a sacrifice must be observed. He must not sleep during the day, or during the first part of the night and the last part. He must not eat in between.378 When it is not her season, he must not summon his wife. In his house, there must never be a brahmana who is not fed or not worshipped. Guests who convey oblations at sacrifices, those who are learned in the Vedas and have bathed themselves in the vows, those who are accomplished and learned in the Vedas, those who are generous and live according to their own dharma, those who observe the rites and those who are ascetics must always be honoured. It is recommended that offerings meant for the gods and the ancestors are for people like these. It is instructed that a share should be given to all beings, even if they sport long nails and hair, even if they have been dislodged from dharma despite knowing it, even if they have deviated from agnihotra sacrifices and even if they have injured the old and the young. A person who is a householder must give food to all of them. The eating of leftovers is always like eating amrita. It is like eating the oblations that are left at the end of a sacrifice, like amrita. A person who eats after the servants have eaten is said to subsist on leftovers. He must be content with his own wife. He must be self-controlled. He must conquer his senses and be devoid of malice. He must not get into debates with officiating priests, priests, preceptors, maternal uncles, guests, dependants, the aged, the young, the distressed, physicians, kin, matrimonial allies, relatives, mothers, fathers, daughters-in-law, brothers, sons, wives, daughters and the category of servants. Having been freed from such conversations, he is freed from all sins. If he can conquer this, there is no doubt that he wins all the worlds. The preceptor is the lord of Brahma’s world, the father is the lord of Prajapati’s world.379 Guests are the lords of Indra’s world, the officiating priest of the world of the gods. Daughters-in-law hold sway over the world of apsaras, kin over that of the Vishvadevas. Matrimonial allies and relatives control the directions and mothers and maternal uncles control the earth. The old, the young, the distressed and the weak hold sway over the sky and have a power like Vishnu. The elder brother is like a father. The wife and the son are like one’s own body. The class of servants represents one’s own shadow. The daughter is most loved. Therefore, one must always tolerate them, without any anxiety, and must never reprimand these. A person devoted to the dharma of a householder must be learned. He must always be devoted to dharma and must be free of exhaustion. He must perform any task because of considerations of artha. He must act in conformity with dharma. There are three kinds of conduct for a householder and in progressive order, each subsequent one is superior to the preceding one.380 This is also said to be true of the four ashramas.381 These are said to be the rules that ensure prosperity in all tasks. A kingdom prospers when those who dwell in it follow the conduct of those who store grain in pots, or glean them like pigeons from the ground.382 If a person cheerfully follows the vows of a householder, ten generations of his ancestors and ten generations of his descendants attain the supreme objective. Acting in this way, he obtains worlds obtained by universal emperors. This is also the objective ordained for those who control their senses. The world of heaven is ordained for householders who are generous in their minds and engaged in welfare. That heaven is full of excellent blossoming flowers and has celestial vehicles. It has been spoken about in the Vedas. Householders who control their souls find a place in the world of heaven. The brahman is the ladder that frees them. By following this second mode,383 one obtains greatness in the world of heaven. After this, there is the supremely great ashrama that is the third, spoken about for those who are ready to cast aside their bodies. Residing in the forest is superior to being a householder. They waste away their bodies there. Listen to this.’”’
Chapter 1564(236)
‘Bhishma said, “You have been told what learned ones have ordained about the conduct of householders. O Yudhishthira! Listen to what has been spoken about next. In due order, a person must proceed to the third stage, one that is characterized by supreme conduct. This is the ashrama of vanaprastha, followed by those who are not di
stressed from observing vows. O Partha! Listen to the conduct of those fortunate ones, who follow this everywhere in the world. They reside in auspicious regions and follow this conduct after having examined it first.
‘“Vyasa said, ‘When a householder sees wrinkles on his body and white hair, and when he sees the children of his children, he should then resort to the forest. The third quarter of the life should be spent dwelling in vanaprastha. He must tend to the fires he used to tend to.384 He must worship the residents of heaven. He must be controlled and restrained in his diet. Without any distraction, he must only eat at the sixth time indicated for taking meals.385 He must maintain cows and other things required for agnihotra sacrifices. He must survive on rice or barley that grows wild and has not been tilled. He must offer oblations at the five kinds of sacrifices.386 Four kinds of conduct are recommended for those who are in the vanaprastha ashrama. Some only wash387 what is needed immediately. Others store enough for a month. Some others store for a year and some others store for twelve years. To accomplish their objectives, they must perform the sacrifice of honouring guests. When it rains, they must only have the sky for a shelter. When it is autumn, they must find refuge in the water. When it is summer, they must torment themselves through the five austerities.388 They must always be restrained in diet. Some roam around the earth. Others are seated or lie down on the bare ground. In the forest, some sprinkle their beds and seats with water. Some use their teeth as mortars for grinding grain. Others use stones for crushing grain. Some only drink a little bit of grain mixed with water during shuklapaksha. Some only drink389 during krishnapaksha. Others eat what becomes available in the normal course of things. Some are rigid in their vows and subsist on roots, fruits and flowers. As is appropriate, they follow the mode revered by the Vaikhanasas.390 That apart, there are many other learned ones who have been consecrated. The fourth stage391 is generally referred to as the dharma of the Upanishads. This follows after garhasthya and vanaprastha. O son! Even in this yuga, brahmanas who know the truth about everything have followed this—Agastya, the saptarshis,392 Madhucchanda, Aghamarshana, Samkriti, Sudiva, Tandi, who lived on barley and conquered his exhaustion, Ahovirya, Kavya, Tandya, the wise Medhatithi, Shala, Vaka, Nirvaka and Shunyapala, who conquered his exhaustion. They were learned in this kind of dharma and went to heaven. O son! There were large numbers of Yayavara393 rishis, fierce in their austerities and accomplished and far-sighted about dharma. They immediately obtained the fruits of this dharma. There were so many brahmanas who resorted to the forest that it is impossible to speak about them. There were the Vaikhanasas, the Valakhilyas and Sikatas. They performed difficult deeds. They were always devoted to dharma. They conquered their senses. All of them went to the forest and immediately obtained the fruits of their dharma. Those fearless ones may not have become nakshatras,394 but can be seen in the large number of stellar bodies. When one is overcome by old age and afflicted by disease, in the fourth quarter of one’s life, one should abandon the vanaprastha stage. One should perform the sacrifice that can be performed in a single day and offer up everything as dakshina. One must perform one’s own funeral rites.395 One must take pleasure in one’s own self and must not depend on anyone else. One must regard one’s own self as the sacrificial fire and give up all possessions. One must perform the sacrifice that can be performed in a single day, which is the sacrifice of all sacrificies. When one sacrifices one’s own self, all other sacrifices and rites can cease. This sacrifice for the sake of emancipation is like making sacrifices to the three fires.396 One should not find fault with the food and only eat five or six mouthfuls for the sake of the five breaths of life.397 At the end of vanaprastha, a sage will cut his hair, beard and nails. Having cleansed himself, he will then proceed from this ashrama to the next sacred ashrama. Such a brahmana departs, offering freedom from fear to all beings. After death, he obtains the eternal and energetic worlds. He is excellent in conduct and all his sins have been cleansed. He doesn’t act so as to desire anything in this world or in the next. He is without anger and without confusion. He is beyond friendship and enmity. Such a man is indifferent towards anything other than his own atman. He observes yama and that which follows.398 He is not distressed at having to give up the principles, oblations and mantras of the sacred texts.399 He is pursuing the objective of performing a sacrifice with his atman. He has conquered his senses and has no doubt about this supreme dharma. After the other three, this fourth ashrama is said to be supreme. It is the best and has all the good qualities. I will recount that supreme state to you. Listen.’”’
Chapter 1565(237)
‘“Shuka said, ‘You have spoken to me about what should be done in vanaprastha. When one is engaged in this,400 to the best of one’s ability, how should one engage the atman, so that one attains the supreme objective?’
‘“Vyasa replied, ‘A person must cleanse himself in the two ashramas.401 Having done this, he must then engage in tasks for the supreme objective. Listen attentively to this. Having eliminated all taints in the first three stages, he must then resort to the supreme state of renunciation. Renunciation is the best stage. Listen to the conduct that must be followed in that state. One should always roam around alone and seek to accomplish the objective without any help. A person who roams around alone sees that there is nothing to be shunned and there is nothing that decays. He is without a fire. He is without an abode. At best, he enters a village for the sake of food. It is recommended that he should save nothing for the next day. His sentiments must be like that of a sage. He must eat little, be restrained in his diet and eat only once a day. The signs of a mendicant are a skull,402 shelter under trees, old garments as attire, lack of companions and indifference towards all beings. Words penetrate him like stones hurled into a well403 and do not return to the original speaker. Such a person is fit to dwell in the ashrama of isolation. He does not see others. He does not hear others. He never speaks injurious words, especially about brahmanas. He always speaks words that are pleasant to brahmanas. He is silent when he is censured and finds treatment for this within his own self. Though he is always alone, he fills the entire sky.404 To him, a deserted spot seems to be full of people. The gods know such a person to be a brahmana. He covers himself with anything. He eats anything. He sleeps anywhere. The gods know such a person to be a brahmana. He is afraid of company, as if they are serpents. He regards anything that satiates as hell.405 He regards women as corpses.406 The gods know such a person to be a brahmana. He is not angered or delighted, regardless of whether he is honoured or insulted. He does not cause any being to be frightened. The gods know such a person to be a brahmana. He is not delighted at the prospect of death. Nor is he delighted at the prospect of remaining alive. He only waits for the time,407 like a servant awaiting instructions. His consciousness has been cleansed. His food and words are clean. He is free from all sins. Since he is without enemies, what fear can he have? He has been freed and has no cause for fear from anything that possesses a body. The footsteps of any animal that follows get lost in the footsteps of an elephant. Everything is absorbed in the footprints of an elephant.408 In that fashion, all dharma and artha are absorbed in lack of injury towards all beings. A person who practises non-violence always resides in what is immortal. He is non-violent and looks on everything equally. He is truthful. He has fortitude and controls his senses. He is the refuge of all beings. He attains the supreme objective. In this way, learned ones are content in their wisdom and are not frightened. He has gone beyond death and the attributes of death do not affect him. Such a sage is free from all attachments and seems to be established in the sky. He wanders alone and tranquil. The gods know such a person to be a brahmana. His life is for the sake of dharma and his dharma is for the sake of others. His days and nights are for the sake of the auspicious. The gods know such a person to be a brahmana. He is without desire. He is without exertion. He does not bow down his head. He is without praise.409 He does not engage in any inferior deeds. The gods know such a p
erson to be a brahmana. He takes delight in the happiness of all beings. He is extremely distressed at the misery of everyone. If they are frightened, he sorrows. He faithfully undertakes his own tasks. Granting beings freedom from fear is superior to all donations and dakshina. A person who first gives up all injury to the bodies of beings grants these subjects eternal freedom from fear. From the navel of the world, the face is raised upwards and oblations are offered into it.410 The head and the upper limbs of the fire receive everything, the good and the bad. In the confines of his heart, he offers his own life up as a libation. All the worlds and the gods are satisfied with his offering up his atman as oblation in that agnihotra. It is divine and golden. It has three shells and three parts.411 It is the supreme objective and is foremost among things to be known. It is greatest in all the worlds. The gods and accomplished people with good deeds walk along that path. It has been spoken of as the greatest objective, the essence of what is to be known in the Vedas and all the rites. He who knows it as the atman in his own body is always loved by the gods. It is not attached to the earth and is divine. It cannot be measured. It is golden. It was born from an egg and resides in the egg.412 It is like a winged bird in the firmament. Blazing in its rays, it can be known inside the atman. It whirls around and has no decay. It rotates on six naves, with twelve spokes and excellent joints.413 The wheel of time is deep and mysterious and everything in the universe heads towards its gaping mouth. It pervades the body of everything in the universe and all the worlds progress towards it. That is spoken of as something that satisfies the gods. When they are satisfied, they gratify that open mouth. The body is ancient and eternal and is full of energy. It is the end of all the worlds and offers freedom from fear. Beings are never frightened of him and he never causes fright to beings.414 He is not censured. Nor does he censure anyone. A brahmana who sees the paramatman in his own atman is like that. He is humble and without confusion. He is beyond all sins. He desires nothing in this world, nor in the other world. He is without anger and without confusion. He regards a lump of clay and gold in the same way. He is devoid of sorrow and is beyond friendship and enmity. He is beyond censure and praise and beyond liking and disliking. He wanders around indifferent, as a mendicant.’”’