11 Tanaka, Hidden Horrors, p. 99
12 See p. 85, Drea, In the Service of the Emperor
13 See p. 343, Herbert P. Bix, Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan, Harper Collins, 2000
14 See p. 206, Edward Behr, Hirohito, Behind the Myth, Random House, 1989
15 See p. 59, Sheldon H. Harris, Factories of Death, Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932—45, and the American Cover-up, by Sheldon H. Harris, Routledge, 1994
DEALING WITH THE WEST
1 Bix, Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan, p. 249
2 See p. 26, Akira Iriye, The Origins of the Second World War in Asia and the Pacific, Longman UK, 1987
3 Iriye, The Origins of the Second World War in Asia and the Pacific, p. 34
4 Quoted p. 251, Bix, Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan
5 Reported in New York Times, 23 September 1937
6 Quoted p. 154, John W. Dower, War Without Mercy, Pantheon Books, New York, 1986
7 Dower, War Without Mercy, p. 107
8 Dower, War Without Mercy, p. 99
9 See p. 66, Iriye, The Origins of the Second World War in Asia and the Pacific
10 Iriye, The Origins of the Second World War in Asia and the Pacific, p. 81
11 Quoted p. 195, Hoyt, Japan’sWar
12 Hoyt, Japan’s War, p. 199
13 See p. 46, Laurence Rees, War of the Century, BBC Books, 1999
14 See p. 212, Hoyt,Japan’s War
15 Hoyt, Japan’s War
16 Churchill in a letter to Sir Hastings Ismay, chief of the imperial defence staff, in early 1941
17 Quoted p. 101, Dower, War Without Mercy
18 See p. 72, John Keegan (ed.), Times Atlas of WWII edited by John Keegan
19 Quoted p. 1009, 1.C.B Dear and M.R.D Foot (eds.), The Oxford Companion to the Second World War, Oxford University Press, 1995
20 Quoted p. 310, Behr, Hirohito, Behind the Myth
PRISONERS OF THE JAPANESE
1 See p. 93, Tanaka, Hidden Horrors
2 Tanaka, Hidden Horrors, p. 12
3 Yoshio Tshuchiya was imprisoned after the war by the Chinese for war crimes
4 Tanaka, Hidden Horrors, p. 66. Note that Murozimi’s evidence was disputed. See Hidden Horrors, pp. 11—78, for a full analysis of the war crimes at Sandakan and Professor Tanaka’s own compelling analysis
5 Statistics quoted p. 2, Tanaka, Hidden Horrors
7 See p. 60, Rees, War of the Century
8 Quoted p. 112, Tanaka, Hidden Horrors
9 Tanaka, Hidden Horrors, p. 121
10 Tanaka, Hidden Horrors, p. 129. Order issued 18 November 1944
LURCHING TOWARDS DEFEAT
1 Quoted p. 432, Bix, Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan
2 Quoted p. 36, Dower, War Without Mercy
3 Quoted p. 1103, Dear and Foot (eds.), The Oxford Companion to the Second World War
4 Quoted p. 71, Dower, War Without Mercy
5 Quoted p. 188, Drea, In the Service of the Emperor
6 After the war Michael Witowich had years of treatment for post-traumatic stress as a result, in particular, of his experiences on Saipan
7 The kamikaze interview material in this chapter (with the exception of the interview with Kenichiro Oonuki) is taken from the BBC film Kamikaze, shown in the Timewatch series in 1995 and published here for the first time. The present author is the editor of the series and the film was written and produced by Jonathan Stamp
ENDGAME
1 Though note that the most often quoted number of marines killed in the battle of Iwo Jima is around 6000
2 This testimony, and the testimony of Charles Sweeney, Suzuko Numata and Akihoro Takahashi that follow, come from interviews contained in Hiroshima — the Decision to Drop the Bomb, transmitted on BBC1 on 6 August 1995. The executive producer of this programme for the BBC was the present author and the film was a production of Antelope (UK) Ltd, written and produced by Jeremy Bennett, executive producer for Antelope Mick Csáky
3 Figures quoted p. 197, Keegan (ed.), The Times Atlas of WWII
4 See p. 214, Drea, In the Service of the Emperor
POSTSCRIPT
1 I am aware of the academic debate about the use of the word ‘perpetrator’ and — as much of the current academic thinking emphasizes — that there were ‘perpetrators’ during the war who did subsequently become ‘victims’.
2 Quoted p. 591, J. Noakes and G. Pridham (ed.), Nazism 1939-1945, Vol. 2: State, Economy and Society 1933-1939, University of Exeter Press, 1984
3 Public Record Office, London, PREM 3/89, quoted pp. 127-9 in Robert Harris and Jeremy Paxman, Higher Form of Killing, Chatto and Windus, 1982
4 Quoted pp. 55-6, Robert Gellately, The Gestapo and German Society, Oxford University Press, 1991
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
As this is a book based on a television series there are a large number of people I need to thank. Jane Root, Controller of BBC2, commissioned the series, and without her commitment and subsequent help there would have been no television series and no book. My other bosses, Paul Hamann, then Head of Documentaries and History, and Glenwyn Benson, Controller of Specialist Factual Programmes, were both also extremely supportive. My co-producers at History Channel in America, particularly Charlie Maday and Joe La Polla, were always a fount of good advice, as was my German co-producer Volker Zielke of NDR in Hamburg.
Professor Akira Iriye of Harvard University was a wonderfully understanding and academically incisive series historical consultant; Professor Yuki Tanaka and Professor Sheldon Harris made a similarly essential contribution to the project. In Japan Professor Tokushi Kasahara, Professor Yutaka Yoshida and Professor Herbert Bix (author of the brilliant recent biography of Hirohito) were especially helpful to us. In Hong Kong we benefited greatly from the work of Jason Wordie, in Borneo Jon Rees and Doris Wong proved of invaluable assistance, in China Hong Qian did a terrific job, in Japan Miho Kometani did fine additional research for us, whilst in Australia Ian Affleck was of sterling aid.
Based in London, Martina Balazova was the Associate Producer on the series — she conducted many of the interviews herself and always proved to be a first-rate journalist on whom I could depend absolutely. Our Japanese Assistant Producer, Fumio Kanda Lai-Hung, also did essential work — much of the original journalism in this project is a direct result of her tenacity and commitment. Tanya Batchelor did a first-rate job as a researcher. Archive research was diligently completed by Jane Mercer, and John Kennedy devised powerful graphics for the series. Alan Lygo edited both programmes with the great artistry we have come to expect. Of the many camera crews who worked with us special mention must be made of Martin Patmore and Brian Biffin, who once again travelled to inhospitable parts of the globe with me and kept their cheerful dispositions intact.
Lorraine Selwyn was a dedicated Production Manager of the project and Nancy Strang, my own assistant, was always generous in her support. Ann Cattini, Unit Manager of the series, and now Production Executive of BBC History Programmes, was also an essential part of the production team, so much so that this book is dedicated to her. For many years now she has not just managed financially all the history productions with which I have been involved, but has also made a vital creative contribution to each one of them. It is important for me to recognize here her vital work on this project (and the previous ones). Any success that these series have had is to a large extent thanks to her.
At BBC Books Sally Potter, Sue Kerr and Nicholas Brett were always kind and helpful, and Andrew Nurnberg also gave sound advice as ever. My dear friend Professor Ian Kershaw kindly read a draft of the Postscript to this book and made a number of useful comments. Professor Iriye not only wrote the generous introduction to this book, he also read the work in manuscript and corrected a number of errors (any that remain are my responsibility).
Of course, I also thank all of the interviewees whose names appear in the body of the book. It is a privilege to be able to question people who have had their ki
nd of extraordinary experiences, and I am grateful to every one of them for agreeing to be interviewed.
Finally, as this is the last of this trilogy of projects, I reserve my closing thanks to my family; to Oliver, Camilla and Benedict, but most of all to Helena. What I owe her can’t be put into words.
INDEX
'2.26 Incident'
air-raids, Japanese cities
atomic bomb
Ali, Hatam
'Anti-Comintern Pact'
Bando camp
battle fatigue, US marines
biological warfare research
Borneo
marches to Api
Sandakan camp
brothels, military
cannibalism
Chamberlain, Neville
Channel Islands, occupation
chemical weapons
'Cherry Blossom' society
China, war in
Churchill, Winston
civilian suicides
colonial expansion
communist arrests
Coral Sea battle
Doolittle, James
Drewery, Irene
Dutch East Indies
Eagleton, James
economic depression
emperor, role of
see also Hirohito,
Emperor
Enomoto, Masayo
excuse for actions
First World war
Floating Chrysanthemums
foreign policy
alliance with Germany
colonial expansion
documents
Geneva Convention
geri, concept of
Gilbert Islands
Grant, Ulysses S.
Guadalcanal, island of
Gulf of Siam
Hashimoto, Yoshiko
Hay, Ronald
Hayashi, Fujio
Hedges, Bill
Henderson Field airstrip
Hewitt, Anthony
as POW
Hirohito, Emperor
'2.26 Incident'
accession to throne
death
false briefings
knowledge of army actions
poem reading
reaction to air-raids
surrender
under US occupation
Hiroshima
Hitler, Adolf
Hong Kong
attack on
POW camps
Hosokawa, Hachiro
human medical experiments
Human Rights codification
Imperial Rescript
Indochina
'infected-rat air-raids'
Iwo Jima
Java
kamikazes
Karashima,Toyoshige
Kempeitai
Kettle, Hans
Kinjou, Shigeaki
Kobayashi, Masaji
Kondo, Hajime
Konoe, Prince Fumimaro
Korea
Kumagaya, bombing of
Kure, bombing of
La Roque, Gene
Le May, Curtis
League of Nations
Lee, Peter
Leyte Gulf
London Naval Treaty
McArthur, Douglas
Magee, Rev. John
Malaya
Manchuria
Manson, Frank
Marco Polo bridge
Matthews, Lionel
Meiji, Emperor
Midway, battle of
Millner, Jim
Mills, Frank,
Montgomery, Paul
Müller, Heinrich
Murphy, Fred
Nagasaki
Nakajima, Tadashi
Nanking massacre
naval disarmament confer-
ence,
neutrality agreement, Soviet
Union
New Guinea
Numata, Suzuko
occupation of Japan
Ogawa, Shoji
oil embargo
Okinawa, island of
Okumiya, Masatake
Oonuki, Kenichiro
Ota, Shoichi
Pearl Harbor
Perry, Matthew
Philippines
poison gas
population density, Japan
postscript
Potsdam conference
Potsdam Declaration
POWs
Borneo
Dutch East Indies
First World War
Hong Kong
New Guinea
Soviet at Eastern Front
propaganda films
Rabe, John
racism and hatred
American soldiers
British soldiers
German soldiers
Japanese soldiers
Ranau
rape
Nanking
US troops
see also brothels, military
Red Army
Roosevelt, Franklin
Ruff, Jan
Saipan, island of
Sandakan camp
Sanko 'pacification'
Sham Shui Po camp
Shanghai
Shinto (religion)
Shinto, Sol
Shogun
Silesian mission massacre
Singapore
situational ethic
Solomon Islands
'souvenirs'
Soviet Union
Soviet-German Non-
aggression Pact
Stalin, Joseph
Stanley camp
Suchow city
suicide
in Japan today
Okinawa
Saipan
Taiwanese guards
Tokashiki
see also kamikazes
Sully, Connie
surrender, Japanese inability
to
ancient warrior code
Suzuki, Kantaro
Sweeney, Charles
Taisho, Emperor
Taiwan
Taiwanese guards
Takahashi, Akihoro
Tarawa, island of
tear gas
Thomas, Osler
Thunder Gods
Tojo, Hideki
Tokashiki, island of
Tokyo, bombing of
torture
training, Imperial Army
in China
Tripartite Pact
Truman, Harry
Tshuchiya, Yoshio
Unit
US marines
atrocities
Guadalcanal
Iwo Jima
Okinawa
Saipan
Tarawa
USS Panay
Versailles Treaty
war crimes trials
water torture
Witowich, Michael
Xiuying Li
Yamamoto, Admiral
Yasukini shrine
Yasumura, Teru
Yuasa, Ken
Horror in the East: Japan and the Atrocities of World War II Page 19