by Omer Bartov
19 Kofler, Żydowski dwory, 5–9, 15–21, 117–21, 128–29, 134–35, 248–72; Kofler, “Jewish Manors,” 1–4, 57–60, 64–65, 68–69, 140–54.
20 Z. Heller, “My Memories”; N. Menatseach, “My Youth”; B. Berkowitz, “The First Hebrew School in Buczacz,” in Sefer Buczacz, 145, 167–70, and 174–78, respectively. Y. Fernhof, an early influence on Agnon, was born in Buczacz in 1866 and died of typhus in Stanisławów in 1919. Y. Cohen, “Yitzhak Fernhof,” in Sefer Buczacz, 122–27.
21 II. Sprawozdanie dyrekcyi C. K. Gimnazyum w Buczaczu za rok szkolny 1901 (Lwów, 1901), 36–39; III. Sprawozdanie . . . za rok szkolny 1902 (Lwów, 1902), 17, 52, 54; VI. Sprawozdanie . . . za rok szkolny 1905 (Buczacz, 1905), 79, 81–82, 85; X. Sprawozdanie . . . za rok szkolny 1909 (Buczacz, 1909), 65, 68–69; XII. Sprawozdanie . . . za rok szkolny 1911 (Buczacz, 1911), 67; XIII. Sprawozdanie . . . za rok szkolny 1912 (Buczacz, 1912), 85–86, 88, 92; XIV. Sprawozdanie . . . za rok szkolny 1913 (Buczacz, 1913), 98–100; XV. Sprawozdanie . . . za rok szkolny 1914 (Buczacz, 1914), 89–92, 94–96. Biblioteka Jagiellońska, Kraków (hereafter BJ), Mf. 11712.
22 I. Sprawozdanie dyrekcyi c. k. Gimnazyum w Buczaczu za rok szkolny 1900 (Stanisławów, 1900), 3–10.
23 VII. Sprawozdanie dyrekcyi c. k. Gimnazyum w Buczaczu za rok szkolny 1906 (Buczacz, 1906), 3–5, 16–18, 24–26.
24 Teofil Ostapowicz, “Wspomnienia wychowanka buczackiego gimnazjum z lat 1901–1909 i trochę historii tegoż z lat poprzednich od roku 1754,” vols. 1 and 2, Biblioteka Zakładu Narodowego im. Ossolińskich (Library of the Ossolineum National Institute, Wrocław, hereafter BOss.), sygnatura (file, hereafter sygn.), 15396/II, pp. 49–51; Żarnowski, Kresy Wschodnie II Rzeczypospolitej, 21. Gymnasium graduates included Mieczysław Gębarowicz, director of the Ossolineum National Institute in Lwów; Władysław Ostrowski, interwar parliamentary representative of the Polish Peasant Party; and Władysław Kalkus, the last commander of Poland’s air force in 1939. See P. Czartoryski-Sziler, “Wielcy zapomniani: Mieczysław Gębarowicz,” Nasz Dziennik, October 1–2, 2005, http://lwow.home.pl/naszdziennik/gebarowicz.html; “Polish Air Force Order of Battle 01.09.1939,” Axis History Forum, http://forum.axishistory.com/viewtopic.php?f=111&t=179631 (both accessed September 9, 2016).
25 All incorporation certificates of Buczacz associations in New York City are on microfilm at the American Jewish Historical Society.
26 W. Portmann, Die wilden Schafe (Münster, 2008), 12–17, 18–19, citing Tydzień Robotnika (Warsaw, Lemberg edition), no. 6, February 6, 1938; M. Nomad, Dreamers, Dynamiters and Demagogues (New York, 1964); Das Österreichische Sanitätswesen, ed. J. Daimer et al. (Vienna, 1894), 733; M. Bałaban, “Buchach,” Yevreyskaya Entsyklopedya, ed. L. Katznelson and D. G. Ginzburg (St. Petersburg, Russia, 1906–13, in Russian), 5:135–36; S. Hryniuk, Peasants with Promise (Edmonton, 1991), 171–92. And see Zvi L-L, “From the Jewish World,” The Jewish Awakener, Nr. 42, Buczacz, August 10, 1906; Menatseach, “My Youth,” noting that the paper, established by Eliezer Rokach and coedited by Agnon, appeared in 1906–1908; C. Roll, “The Hospital and the Home for the Elderly,” and D. D. P., “Memorable Women,” all in Sefer Buczacz, 104–5, 171, 180–82, and 222, respectively.
27 Agnon, The City Whole, 644–46.
28 Portmann, Die wilden Schafe, 55–58, and citing M. Nacht, “Anarchistenjagd,” Neues Leben, Nr. 23 (June 6, 1903) and Nr. 24 (June 13, 1903); Agnon, A Guest for the Night, 236–37, 323–25. The news of Siegfried’s release arrived on the same day by telegram: Buczacz had a telegraph office since 1863. Kladochnyi, Brief Sketch of Buczacz, 13; Stotskyi, Basilian Monastery, 42. See also, e.g., Robert Graham’s Anarchism Weblog, https://robertgraham.wordpress.com/2010/09/10/siegfried-nacht-the-social-general-strike-1905/ (accessed February 17, 2017).
29 E. Dubanowicz, Stanowisko ludności żydowskiej w Galicyi wobec Wyborów do parlamentu wiedeńskiego w r. 1907 (Lwów, 1907), 6, 8–12, 16–17, 22–24, 34–35, 39–40, and table, 41. Paradoxically, while Jews had a plurality in the city of Buczacz, the Zionist candidate, Natan Birnbaum, lost the election because most Ruthenians preferred the Polish candidate. Conversely, in the rural Buczacz district, although Greek Catholics made up two-thirds of the population, the Jewish candidate won thanks to an agreement between the Ruthenians and the Jews, becoming one of only four Jewish National Party representatives in the Austrian Parliament. Wiadomości statystyczne o stosunkach krajowych wydawany, ed. T. Pilat, vol. 23, pt. 1: Wybory do Sejmu krajowego z r. 1908 i lat dawniejszych, ed. M. Nabodnik, Krajowe Biuro Statystyczne (Lwów, 1910), 10, 14–15, 23–24, 28, 31, 34–35; vol. 24, pt. III: Materiały statystyczne do reformy sejmowej ordynacie wyborczej, ed. M. Nadobnik, Krajowe Biuro Statystyczne (Lwów, 1912), 8, 14, 17–18, 24; Oesterreichische Statistik, vol. 84, Nr. 2: Die Ergebnisse der Reichsratswahlen . . . im Jahre 1907, ed. K. K. Statistische Zentralkommission (Vienna, 1908), 86–87. Shanes, Diaspora Nationalism, 266, 270, 275, has a somewhat different interpretation. Dubanowicz became a professor of law at Lwów University and a member of the Polish Parliament as an affiliate of the anti-Semitic National Democratic Party. G. J. Lerski, Historical Dictionary of Poland, 966–1945 (Westport, CT, 1996), 119; J. Faryś et al., Edward Dubanowicz, 1881–1943 (Szczecin, Poland, 1994).
30 Gruiński, Materiały do kwestyi żydowskiej, 20–21, 35, 46, 49–50. The Jewish Colonization Association (Ika) in Galicia also trained potential immigrants in agriculture and settled them “as farmers in extra-European countries,” especially Argentina, but also Canada, Cyprus, Palestine, Asia Minor, and Brazil, and in cooperation with the Jewish Agricultural and Industrial Aid Society, also in the United States, notably in New Jersey (52–53). Pilat, Wiadomości statystyczne, vol. 23, pt. 3: Podatki bezpośrednie w Galicyi przypisane na r. 1910, ed. M. Nabodnik, Krajowe Biuro Statystyczne (Lwów, 1910), 12, 17; Bericht über die Tätigkeit des Hilfsvereins für die notleidende jüdische Bevölkerung in Galizien während des Jahres 1905 (Vienna, 1905), 4–10, 21–22.
31 TsDIAL, fond 309, op. 1, spr. 2547, pp. 44–45, 47–50. The questionnaire was distributed by the Shevchenko Scientific Society, founded in Lwów in 1873 to promote the Ukrainian language, and later a scholarly institute led by the historian Mykhailo Hrushevsky with significant input by the author Ivan Franko. See the Shevchenko Scientific Society’s website, http://www.shevchenko.org (accessed September 9, 2016).
32 “Students Wreck University,” New York Times, January 24, 1907, http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9907E6D8153EE033A25757C2A9679C946697D6CF (accessed September 9, 2016).
Chapter 2: ENEMIES AT THEIR PLEASURE
1 Österreich-Ungarns letzter Krieg 1914–1918, ed. E. Glaise-Horstenau et al., vol. 1: Das Kriegsjahr 1914, 2nd ed. (Vienna, 1931), 37–47, 155–338, esp. 305, 319–20, 595, 599; Österreich-Ungarns letzter Krieg, vol. 2: Das Kriegsjahr 1915, pt. 1 (Vienna, 1931), 176–77. See also N. Stone, The Eastern Front, 1914–1917 (London, 1975); H. H. Herwig, The First World War (London, 1997); J. A. Sandborn, Drafting the Russian Nation (DeKalb, IL, 2003).
2 Antoni Siewiński, “Pamiętniki buczacko-jazłowieckie z czasów wojny wszechświatowej od roku 1914 do roku 1920: pamiętnik rodzinny,” BJ, rkp. 7367 II, 4–6. Siewiński appears as temporary director of the four-grade public boys’ school in Buczacz in Szematyzm nauczycielski wraz z kalendaryum na rok 1911 (Lwów, 1910), 123. See also W. Maćkowicz, Wspomnienia polskiego nauczyciela Pogranicza (1893–1976), ed. J. Zdrenka (Toruń, Poland, 2005), the diary of a younger Polish teacher who attended the Buczacz gymnasium before World War I.
3 Siewiński, “Pamiętniki,” 8–10.
4 Ibid., 10–11, 13–15, 22.
5 Kofler, Żydowski dwory, 129; Kofler, “Jewish Manors,” 65.
6 Siewiński, “Pamiętniki,” 17–20.
7 Ibid., 21–22.
8 Ibid., 20–23.
9 Ibid., 24–28.
10 Ibid., 28–34.
11 Ibid., 34–35, 37–38.
12 Ibid., 38–39.
13 Ibid., 39–40; Kofler, Żydowski d
wory, 254–55; Kofler, “Jewish Manors,” 143–44.
14 Kofler, Żydowski dwory, 256–57; Kofler, “Jewish Manors,” 144–45; Siewiński, “Pamiętniki,” 40–45.
15 Siewiński, “Pamiętniki,” 45–48. Russian and Austrian accounts note that after fierce fighting with Austrian hussars and artillery, elements of General Pavlov’s 2nd Kuban Cossack Division, followed by the bulk of General Aleksei Brusilov’s 8th Army, captured Buczacz on August 25, 1914. But General Pavlov’s initial attempt to seize the town of Monasterzyska ten miles to the west was beaten back by the Austrian 35th Infantry Division. The fighting cost the Kuban Division alone some 250 men, and the countryside surrounding Buczacz was strewn with Russian and Austrian corpses. Österreich-Ungarns letzter Krieg, 2:206–8, 211–12; Tsentralnyi derzhavnyi istorychnyi arkhiv Ukrainy, m. Kyiv (Central State Historical Archives of Ukraine in Kiev, hereafter TsDIAK), fond 363, op. 1, spr. 2, p. 51.
16 Siewiński, “Pamiętniki,” 50–55.
17 Ibid., 57–59.
18 Idib., 60, 64–65; Kofler, Żydowski dwory, 257–59; Kofler, “Jewish Manors,” 145–46.
19 Siewiński, “Pamiętniki,” 62, 66–67.
20 Ibid., 67–72, 153–54.
21 Ibid., 154.
22 Ibid., 81–84, 86–87; E. Lohr, “The Russian Army and the Jews,” The Russian Review 60 (2001): 412–14.
23 Siewiński, “Pamiętniki,” 91–97.
24 Ibid., 114–17, 124–25, 128–29, 154–60.
25 Kofler, Żydowski dwory, 184–90, 259–65; Kofler, “Jewish Manors,” 100–104, 147–50.
26 Siewiński, “Pamiętniki,” 160–68. The joint German-Austrian counteroffensive, begun on May 1, 1915, in which Buczacz was liberated, cost the Austro-Hungarian forces 500,000 casualties and the Russians well over a million. Encyclopaedia Britannica (hereafter EB), 12th ed. (London, 1922), 31:863–68, 901–3, 907; 32:296–97, 598; Österreich-Ungarns letzter Krieg, 2:465–67, 493–94, 613–18, 728–29; Österreich-Ungarns letzter Krieg, vol. 3: Das Kriegsjahr 1915, pt. 2 (Vienna, 1932), 66–68, 71–73, 97–107, 131–32, 171–75, 526–27, 556, 558–59; Österreich-Ungarns letzter Krieg, vol. 4: Das Kriegsjahr 1916, pt. 1 (Vienna, 1933), 13–15, 19–21, 729–30; AT-OeSt, Kriegsarchiv (War Archive, hereafter KA), Neue Feldakten (new operational documents, hereafter NFA), 36 Infantry Division (hereafter I. D.), Opus (series, hereafter Op.) Nr. 449/14, Karton (box, hereafter K.) 2124.
27 Siewiński, “Pamiętniki,” 169–70.
28 Ibid., 170, 176–77; D. J. Penslar, Jews and the Military (Princeton, 2013), 157; M. L. Rozenblit, Reconstructing a National Identity (New York, 2001), 54; I. Deák, Jewish Soldiers in Austro-Hungarian Society (New York, 1990), 24–25; I. Deák, Beyond Nationalism (New York, 1990), 56–58; E. A. Schmidl, Juden in der k. (u.) k. Armee (Eisenstadt, Austria, 1989), 5. On Austrian Army fears of spies after reoccupying Buczacz, see ÖSA, KA, NFA, 36 I. D., Op. 432/37, K. 2123; Op. 802/58, K. 2124.
29 The second Russian invasion swelled the number of refugees to 200,000 by late 1917. Even in 1921 Galicia had 20 percent fewer Jewish inhabitants than in 1910. Lohr, “Russian Army,” 404–19; E. Lohr, “1915 and the War Pogrom Paradigm in the Russian Empire,” and P. Holquist, “The Role of Personality in the First (1914–1915) Russian Occupation of Galicia and Bukovina,” in Anti-Jewish Violence, ed. J. Deckel-Chen et al. (Bloomington, IN, 2011), 41–51 and 52–73, respectively; P. Holquist, “Violent Russia, Deadly Marxism?,” Kritika 4/3 (2003): 637–68; AT-OeSt, Archiv der Republik (Archive of the Republic, hereafter AdR), Kriegsflüchtlinge (war refugees, hereafter KFL), numerous documents in K. 15–18 for 1915–18 on refuges from Galicia and Bukovina, including Buczacz.; E. Ederer, “The Jews of Vienna in Buczacz,” in Sefer Buczacz, 188–91; Heller, “My Memories,” in Sefer Buczacz, 158. See also Rozenblit, Reconstructing a National Identity, 66; P. Wróbel, “The Jews of Galicia under Austrian-Polish Rule, 1869–1918,” Austrian History Yearbook 24 (1994): 133–35; A. V. Prusin, Nationalizing a Borderland (Tuscaloosa, AL, 2005).
30 AT-OeSt, Haus-, Hof-und Staatsarchiv, Politisches Archiv I, Krieg 3 R, Haltung Russlands 1915, K. 830, #507, “Telegramm des 1. Armeekommandos an das AOK.” Buczacz was given 10,000 crowns on October 20, 1915, to support reconstruction. AT-OeSt, Allgemeines Verwaltungsarchiv (hereafter AVA), Ministerium des Innern (hereafter MdI), Allgemeine Reihe (hereafter Allg.), Signatur (series, hereafter Sig.) 18, K. 2233, “Elementarschäden . . . Galizien, 1914–15, 1916”: “Subventionen in Buczacz (10.000 K).”
31 AT-OeSt, AVA, MdI, Präsidium, Sig. 22, K. 2115, “Galizien, 1912–1913,” P. 9283/1911; K. 2119, “Galizien, 1918,” P. 17387/1918: Pniaczek Marian aus Buczacz.” On allegations of Jewish espionage under Russian occupation, as well as accounts of anti-Jewish Russian violence, including the rape of forty Jewish women in Buczacz, see S. An-Sky, The Destruction of the Jews in Poland, Galicia, and Bukovina, trans. from Yiddish to Hebrew by S. L. Zitron, 2 vols. (Tel Aviv, 1936[?]), vol. 1, pt. 1: 7–13, 99; pt. 2: 108, 111–13, 117; S. An-Sky, 1915 diary of S. An-Sky, ed. and trans. P. Zavadivker (Bloomington, IN, 2016), 67, 169 (n. 53), 74. For an abridged English translation see S. Ansky, The Enemy at His Pleasure, trans. and ed. J. Neugroschel (New York, 2002).
32 Siewiński, “Pamiętniki,” 179–86, 194–202.
33 EB, 12th ed., 30:908–10; Österreich-Ungarns letzter Krieg, vol. 5: Das Kriegsjahr 1916, pt. 2 (Vienna, 1934), 218; Österreich-Ungarns letzter Krieg, vol. 6: Das Kriegsjahr 1917 (Vienna, 1936), 46. T. C. Dowling, The Brusilov Offensive (Bloomington, IN, 2008), 160–2, 173, concludes: “The massive losses” of the Russian Army “undoubtedly lowered the morale of the troops even further, and by autumn the ‘disease’ of revolution was beginning to infect the front,” with increasing numbers of frontline units refusing to fight. Additionally, the loyal noblemen who had originally made up the officer corps were decimated and replaced by recruits who were “increasingly poisoned by propaganda,” coming as they did from a home front where “disaffection with the war had long been a problem.” At the same time, the offensive also “put an end to whatever slim hopes of victory, or even survival, the Habsburg leadership might have had,” since “the Austro-Hungarian military had, for all intents and purposes, ceased to exist,” and “the mood of the populace, already doubtful, now took a turn for the worse as war-weariness turned to defeatism.”
34 Österreich-Ungarns letzter Krieg, 4:426–35, 465.
35 A. Lev, “The Devastation of Galician Jewry in the Bloody World War: Excerpt from a Diary,” trans. from Yiddish to Russian by B. Aizenberg, in Jewish Chronicle, ed. L. M. Klyachko et al. (Leningrad, 1924), 3:169–76, citation on 173–74. See also P. M. Zavadivker, “Blood and Ink” (PhD diss., University of California, Santa Cruz, 2013), 9, 85, 112; An-Sky, Destruction, vol. 1, pt. 2: 126–27.
36 Lev, “Devastation,” 174–75.
37 Ibid., 173–76; An-Sky, Destruction, vol. 2, pt. 4: 349–52, 384–85, 400–406. Lev was inspired by Ansky and by the historian Simon Dubnow, whom he met in St. Petersburg just before the Brusilov Offensive. After the Revolution he worked for the Evsektsiia (the Jewish Section of the Communist Party); in World War II he joined the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee, which collected evidence on the Holocaust. Zavadivker, “Blood and Ink,” 85–86. See also L. Jockusch, Collect and Record! (New York, 2012), 21–22; Z. Y. Gitelman, Jewish Nationality and Soviet Politics (Princeton, 1972), 292–303, citing A. Lev, Religie un klaikoidesh in kamf kegn der idisher arbeter-bavegung (Moscow, 1923); M. Altshuler et al., “Were There Two Black Books about the Holocaust in the Soviet Union?,” Jews and Jewish Topics in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe 1/17 (1992): 37–55.
38 EB, 12th ed., 30:911–13; Österreich-Ungarns letzter Krieg, 6:303–12, 409.
39 AT-OeSt, AVA, MdI, Allg., Sig. 18, K. 2235, “Elementarschäden . . . Galizien, 1917”; “Ostgalizien, Hilfsaktion, October 3, 1917; AT-OeSt, AVA, MdI, Allg., Sig. 18, K. 2235, “Elementarschäden . . . Galizien, 1918”; “Galizien, wirtschafl. Wiederaufrichtung der Stadt Buczacz,” October 3, 1918;
AT-OeSt, AdR, KFL, K. 16, 1918, “Heimkehr der Flüchtlinge nach Galizien,” Vienna, March 29, 1918, p. 3; Archiwum Główne Akt Dawnych (Central Archives of Historical Records, Warsaw, hereafter AGAD), zespół (fond, record group, hereafter zesp.) 311, sygn. 250, k.k. Ministerium für öffentliche Arbeiten, November 16 and 19, 1917, January 12, 1918: “Heranziehung der Zivilbevölkerung . . . zum Straßenbau”; TsDIAL, fond 146, op. 48, spr. 31–32, “Ekspozytura budowlana, c.k. Namiestnictwa (C. O. G.) w Buczaczu,” June 4 and July 4, 1918.
40 Siewiński, “Pamiętniki,” 205, 224–25.
41 Ibid., 250–55. Archiwum akt nowych (Central Archives of Modern Records, Warsaw, hereafter AAN), Kolekcja opracowań i odpisów dokumentów dot. stosunków Polski z Łotwą, Ukrainą, etc. (Collection of documents concerning relations between Poland and Latvia, Ukraine, etc., hereafter KOOD), 55: report by Ukrainian National Council in Buczacz County, November 7, 1918, pp. 14–17. Bochurkiv’s mid-1930s Polish police file (under his Polish name, Ilarjon Bociurków) reports, “Former Ukrainian Commissioner, carried out the internment of the Polish intelligentsia in the Buczacz District. Fierce enemy of the Poles. Intelligent and previously very influential.” Derzhavnyi arkhiv Ternopilskoi oblasti (State Archive of Ternopil oblast, hereafter DATO), fond 274, op. 4, spr. 78, p. 11. Siewiński also refers to him as Bociurko.
42 Siewiński, “Pamiętniki,” 257–65; AAN, KOOD, 55, pp. 128–29, Report to the Ukrainian National Council in Lwów on the elections to the Buczacz County Council, November 8, 1918.
43 Siewiński, “Pamiętniki,” 267–70, 272–80, 300; Centralne Archiwum Wojskowe (Central Archives of the Polish Armed Forces, Warsaw, hereafter CAW), I:400.1554: Testimonies from the Polish-Ukrainian War, pp. 27–42; Ukrainian Violence against Polish Civilians in Buczacz Country, pp. 28–29, 33.