Lincoln's Code

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Lincoln's Code Page 72

by John Fabian Witt

Mason, George, 34

  Mason, James, 165–68, 317

  Mason, John, 68, 91–92, 133

  Mason-Dixon line, 202

  Massachusetts, 41, 92, 109–11

  Massachusetts Bay Colony, 91–92, 265

  Massachusetts militia, 202

  Massachusetts Republican Party, 205

  Matamoros, 152–53, 154

  Matthew, Gospel of, 288

  Matthews, James, 39

  Matthews, John, 40

  Mayer, Jane, 5

  Meade, George Gordon, 119, 253

  Mediterranean Sea, 115

  Memorial of the Rule of the War of 1756 (Pinkney), 82

  Memory of Solferino, A (Dunant), 339, 341

  Memphis, Tenn., 276, 314

  Mercer, Hugh W., 302

  Mercer, Samuel, 157

  merchant fleet, British, 144, 147, 152–54, 165–69

  merchant fleet, U.S., 154

  Merryman, John, 150n

  Mexican Army, 117–19, 138

  guerrilla forces in, 120–22, 124–28, 129, 132, 134

  San Patricio Battalion of, 125

  Mexican National Guard, 120

  Mexican War of 1846, 86, 117–26, 137, 141, 152, 179, 182, 323, 332

  civilian deaths in, 121, 122

  first engagement of, 152

  lawlessness on both sides in, 118–24, 131

  Winfield Scott and, 119–20, 122–28, 130–32, 134, 138, 193, 195, 230, 289, 332, 368–69

  Mexico, 47, 153, 289

  U.S. border with, 117

  Mexico City, 121–24, 126

  Middleton, Henry, 76

  Milan Decree, 64

  Miles, Nelson A., 335, 356, 359

  military commissions, 5

  after the Civil War, 289–304, 308–13, 316–18

  in the Civil War, 219–30, 264, 266–73, 289–90

  early forerunners of, 24–27, 98–99

  Henry Wirz and, 298–302, 303, 334

  Lincoln assassination and, 289–96, 310

  in Mexican War, 123–28, 130, 131, 132, 264, 289, 293, 370

  trials of Indians by, 330–34, 331, 336

  Military Law Review, 267n

  military necessity, 4, 17–18, 40, 50

  Andrew Jackson and, 79, 93–94, 100

  Caroline case and, 112

  Francis Lieber on, 183–84, 234–37

  Lincoln on, 198–99, 208, 211–12, 218, 237–39

  Sumner and, 205

  Military Reconstruction Act, 314–16

  Military Service Institution, U.S., 357

  military technology, 19, 129

  Mill, John Stuart, 175, 225

  Miller, Samuel, 290

  Milligan, Lambdin, 308–9, 316

  trial of, 311–13

  Milligan case, 311–13, 314, 315

  Milwaukee, Wis., 142

  Milwaukee Daily Press & News, 142

  minié balls, 4

  Minnesota, 239, 328, 330–32

  Minnesota, University of, 359

  Minnesota, USS, 147

  Minutemen, 9

  Mirabeau, Comte de, 341

  Mississippi, 95, 102, 190, 201

  secession of, 136–37

  Mississippi River, 105, 108, 200, 278

  Missouri, 116, 142, 187–89, 198, 332

  Missouri Republican, 190

  Missouri State Guard, 188

  Mitchel, Ormsby M., 191

  Mobile Register, 201

  Modern Laws of War of Civilized States (Bluntschli), 343

  Modoc Indians, 334–35

  clash of U.S. Army with, 328–30

  Mohegan Indians, 89

  Monmouth, Battle of, 54

  Monroe, James:

  presidency of, 76, 79, 87, 93, 99–100, 103, 104, 105

  as secretary of state, 63

  Monterey, 119, 120, 123

  Montesquieu, Baron de La Brède et de, 28, 30, 31, 228

  Montgomery, James, 221, 247

  Monthly Law Reporter, 199

  Monticello, 28

  Moore, Thomas, 157

  Moravian Church, 38

  Morgan, John, 190

  Mormonism, 132

  Morocco, 47

  Morris, Robert, 27

  Morse, Jedidiah, 51–52

  Morse, Samuel, 52

  Mosby, John Singleton, 303

  Moscow, 50

  Moses, 369

  Mound City, Mo., 187–88

  Moylan, Stephen, 22

  Moynier, Gustave, 341

  Mudd, Samuel, 291–94, 311

  Booth treated by, 291–92

  pardon of, 322

  Muraviev, Count, 347–48

  Nagasaki, U.S. bombing of, 6

  Namur, 174, 175

  Napier, Sir William, 122

  Napoleon I, Emperor of France, 64, 84, 100, 120, 127, 144, 173–74, 177, 200, 231, 242

  exile of, 174

  Peninsular Campaign of, 49, 50, 194, 253, 298

  plunder by, 233

  political rise of, 280

  puppet governments of, 286

  Russian invasion by, 50, 52, 122

  Waterloo defeat of, 174, 175, 352

  Napoleonic Wars, 56, 122, 144, 154, 173–74, 177, 184, 185n, 194

  Napoleon III, Emperor of France, 338

  Narragansett Indians, 91

  Nashville, Tenn., 170

  Nassau, 153–54

  Nation, 95n

  National Intelligencer, 65, 103

  nationalism, 3

  National Republican, 330

  Naval War College, 346

  Navy, U.S., 56–59, 62–65, 115, 156, 347, 354, 362

  chaplains in, 87

  laws of war for, 86–88

  officers of, 87–88, 109

  size of, 135, 145

  Navy Department, U.S., 87, 145, 148–49, 346–47

  Nazi leaders, trials of, 3

  necessity, see military necessity

  Neely, Mark, 267n

  Nelson, Samuel, 161–62

  Nelson, Thomas, 100

  Nereide case, 58

  Netherlands, 44, 53

  U.S. treaty with, 47

  neutrality, 6, 17–18, 19

  Civil War and, 146, 149–50, 152–56, 166–68, 223, 263

  Declaration of Paris and, 134–35

  early U.S. policy of, 52–66

  Geneva Convention and, 339–40

  The Hague and, 352

  Washington’s proclamation of, 51–53

  Newark (Canada), 67

  New France, 14

  New Hampshire, 105

  New Jersey, 20, 23, 54

  New London, Conn., 39, 40

  New Mexico Territory, 335

  New Orleans, La., 157, 202, 216, 314

  Union occupation of, 1, 189, 238, 244

  Newton, Isaac, 85

  New York, 20, 83

  criminal justice system of, 115–17

  Long Island, 21

  New York, N.Y., 25, 180

  Central Park in, 339

  harbor of, 21, 162, 187, 296

  machine politics of, 147–48

  Tombs prison in, 158, 162

  water supply of, 295

  New York Children’s Aid Society, 341

  New York Herald, 142–43, 246, 247, 329–30

  New York Independent, 318

  New York Journal of Commerce, 205

  New York Republican Party, 265

  New York Supreme Judicial Court, 114

  New York Times, 181, 227, 259, 260, 295, 305, 313, 340

  New York Tribune, 143

  Niagara, USS, 147

  Niagara Falls, 111–12

  Niagara Falls, N.Y., 67

  Niagara River, 111–12

  Niblack, William, 305–6

  Nicholas II, Czar of Russia, 347–48

  Niebuhr, Barthold Georg, 253

  Nightingale, Florence, 338–39

  Nobel Peace Prize, 373

  Norfolk, Va., 54, 62

  North, Frederick, Lord, 43

  No
rth Africa, 47

  North American Review, 115, 200

  North Carolina, 145, 201, 228, 359

  Nueces River, 117, 118

  Nuremberg International Military Tribunal, 112

  American-made charter of, 6

  Obama, Barack, 373

  Ohio, 34, 37, 38, 92, 115, 271–73

  Ohio, 109

  Ohio River, 13, 26

  Ohio Valley, 19, 33, 38, 47

  junction of three rivers in, 13, 169

  Oklahoma, 335

  O’Laughlin, Michael, 291, 294

  Olmsted, Frederick Law, 339

  Onis, Luis de, 105

  Ordeal by Fire: The Civil War and Reconstruction (McPherson), 301n

  Oregon Territory, 197, 328, 332–35

  Ottawa Indians, 36

  Ottomon Empire, 133, 174–75

  Ould, Robert, 256, 259, 262, 287, 299, 301

  Overton, John, 103

  Owsley, Frank, 155

  Oxford University, 30

  Pacific Ocean, 105, 164, 328, 353–54, 363

  pacifism, 3, 111, 131–32, 151, 177–79

  Paine, Tom, 41

  Palasciano, Ferdinando, 339

  Palmerston, Lord, 114–15, 135, 136

  Palmyra, Mo., 189, 274

  Panay, 359

  Paris, 54, 72, 339

  1856 peace conference in, 133

  Parker, Joel (governor), 217

  Parker, Joel (professor), 201, 217

  Parliament, British, 36, 136

  prisoner of war legislation in, 43

  parole, see prisoners of war

  Partisan Ranger Act, 190, 192

  patriotism, 103, 109, 177–78

  Patterson, Robert, 202

  Peace of Utrecht (1713), 45

  Peace of Westphalia, 348

  peace societies, 131–32, 137, 182, 188, 191, 265

  Peel, Robert, 115

  Peninsula Campaign, 209, 230, 235

  Peninsular Campaign, 49, 50, 194, 253, 298

  Pennsylvania, 33, 36, 81, 91, 107, 150

  Pennsylvania militia, 92

  Pequot Indians, 91, 92, 253

  Pequot War of 1637, 91

  Perry, Aaron Fyfe, 272

  Perry, Matthew, 88

  Peterhoff, 154

  Petrel, 159

  Phelps, John W., 224, 244

  Philadelphia, Pa., 53, 63, 80–81, 83, 147, 161–62, 176, 315

  “Killers” gang of, 118–19

  Philippines, 353–62, 368

  Philippine War of 1899–1902, 6, 7, 354–62

  guerrilla warfare in, 354–55

  U.S. use of torture in, 355–56, 359–61, 360, 363, 364–65

  Pickett, George, 302, 340

  Pierce, Franklin, 133–36, 141, 224

  Pillow, Gideon, 170, 173

  Pinckney, Thomas, 60

  Pinkney, William, 81–82

  piracy, 21, 87, 115, 134, 146, 159, 161–63

  Pitt, William, 60–61

  Pittsburgh, Pa., 92

  Poindexter, George, 102

  poisons, 67, 325

  prohibition of, 2, 3, 4, 18, 183

  police forces, 143

  Polk, James, 117, 123, 124, 128n, 141

  Polk, Leonidas, 253

  Pontiac’s War, 92

  Poor Richard’s Almanac (Franklin), 43

  Pope, John, 214, 229, 330, 334

  Porter, Fitz John, 214

  Port Royal, S.C., 164

  Powell, Lewis, 291, 292, 294

  “Précis Relative to Negroes in America” (Carleton), 204

  Price, Sterling, 188, 192

  Priestley, Joseph, 11

  prisoners of war, 382–85

  black, 256–61, 257, 258, 265, 274, 288, 297, 298

  British, 21, 22–23, 24–27, 28, 33–37, 39–41, 67–69

  capture of, 13–14, 17, 21, 24, 26, 28, 33–37, 40

  Confederate Army, 230, 264, 278, 309

  as criminals, 143

  death rates among, 21, 80, 260–61, 263, 300–301

  escape of, 68–69

  exchange of, 21, 22–23, 37, 68–69, 118, 181, 230, 245, 254–56, 258–63, 262, 278, 388–89

  execution of, 4, 13–14, 17, 21, 23–27, 24, 30, 31, 35, 38, 40–41, 42, 66, 66, 99, 107, 114, 120–21, 127, 256–59, 257, 258, 265, 274, 281–82, 297, 298, 302, 355–56

  Filipino, 355–56

  French, 21

  high-profile, 21, 24–26

  Indian, 335–36

  laws governing treatment of, 2, 4, 8, 17, 20, 21, 23, 67–68, 90

  parole of, 21, 23, 37, 38, 68, 127, 230, 232, 254–56, 344, 389–90

  as slaves, 30–31

  slaves as, 30

  Union Army, 163, 230, 232, 255–63, 257, 258, 278, 288, 298–301, 302, 333

  U.S., 21–23, 27, 28, 34, 38, 66, 66, 67–69

  wounded, 21, 24, 66, 66, 68, 79–80

  prison ships, 21, 34, 80

  privateering, 44, 45–46, 53–54, 88, 134–36, 157–65, 159, 200, 223–24, 366–67

  Prize Cases, The, 150–51, 152, 155, 306–7, 323

  property, at sea, 44–47, 56–60, 133–36, 150–55, 202, 352

  property, on land, 4, 40, 50, 70–72, 139, 211, 233–34, 379–81

  Sherman and, 275–77, 282

  slaves as, 70–77, 139, 198–99, 205, 226–27

  Providence Gazette, 63

  Prussia, 133, 182

  Austrian war with, 328, 341, 343

  French wars with, 52, 173–74, 177–78, 184, 194, 231, 340, 343

  U.S. treaty with, 46, 47, 134

  Prussian army, 2, 173–74, 184

  Colberg Regiment of, 174

  Puebla, 120, 123

  Puerto Rico, 353

  Pufendorf, Samuel, 103

  Punta Agua, 119

  Quantrill, William, 189, 189, 268, 275

  Queen’s College (Ireland), 225

  Queenstown, Battle of, 122

  race riots, 314

  Raisin River, Battle of, 66, 66

  Rancho Agua Nueva, 121

  Rancho Guadalupe, 121

  Randall, James G., 370

  Randolph, George, 192–93

  Randolph, John, 36

  Randolph, Tenn., 191

  Rappahannock River, 208

  Rawle, William, 81, 269

  Raymond, Henry, 305, 340

  Reagan, John, 287

  Reconstruction, 311–13

  Congressional debates on, 304–7, 316–17

  theories on, 306, 307

  Red Cross, 341, 370

  Reid, John, 65

  Remarks Upon Alchemy and Alchemists (Hitchcock), 254

  Republican Party, 148, 264–65, 272, 371

  antislavery platform of, 151

  congressional majorities of, 304–6, 312

  moderate wing of, 315

  Reynolds, Martha, 52

  Rhode Island, 39, 70, 91

  Richmond, Va., 74, 190, 202, 208–9, 224, 230, 232, 244, 254, 259, 295

  Richmond Enquirer, 65, 313

  Rio Grande River, 117, 118–19, 152, 153

  Rocky Mountains, 105

  Roman Catholics, 125

  Romans, ancient, 30, 88, 124, 200

  Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, 372

  Roosevelt, Theodore, 353

  presidency of, 7, 352, 355, 359, 361, 365

  Root, Elihu, 7, 352, 353, 357, 359, 362, 365

  Ross, Robert, 49–50

  Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 129, 233, 271, 276

  Royal Navy, 26, 51, 60, 62–65, 112, 352

  U.S. seamen impressed into, 55

  vessels of, 135

  Royster, Charles, 275–76

  Rubens, Peter Paul, 348

  Ruffin, Edmund, 190

  Ruggles, Daniel, 197

  Rule of 1756, 60–62, 64

  Rules of Land Warfare (Glenn), 363–65

  Rush, Benjamin, 24

  Russell, John, Lord, 144, 148, 155, 161, 166–68

  Russell, William Howard, 160, 340


  Russia, 133, 347–50

  British wars with, 133

  French wars with, 50, 52, 122, 133

  U.S. relations with, 47, 76

  Russian Army, 184, 191

  Russian Ministry of Affairs, 343

  Russo-Japanese War of 1905, 3

  Rutledge, John, 39

  Saint-Domingue, 200

  St. John’s River, 221

  St. Louis, Mo., 187–88, 198

  St. Marks, Fla., 98, 100

  St. Thomas, Virgin Islands, 154

  Salamanca, 17

  Salem Gazette, 68

  Salisbury prison camp, 303, 322

  Samar, 356, 359

  Sand Creek, Colo., 336, 337

  Sands, Philippe, 5

  Sanitary Commission, U.S., 173, 278, 339

  San Jacinto, 164–66

  Saratoga, Battle of, 23, 28

  Sardinia, 133

  Sartiges, Eugène de, 136

  Savannah, 161–62, 163

  Savannah, Ga., 302, 303

  Savannah River, 29

  Saxony, 19

  Saxton, Rufus, 222

  Saybrook, Conn., 92

  scalping, 33–36, 38, 88–90, 97–98, 103–4, 336

  Schade, Louis, 299

  Schlesinger, Arthur M., Jr., 52n

  Schmitt, Carl, 6–7

  Schofield, John M., 325, 334, 357

  Schooner Exchange case, 58

  Scotland, 19, 42, 286

  Scott, Sir Walter, 109

  Scott, Sir William, 64, 154

  Scott, Winfield, 86, 115, 159, 166

  as general-in-chief of Union Army, 138, 159

  General Orders No. 20 of, 123–24

  General Orders No. 372 of, 126

  in Mexican War, 119–20, 122–28, 130–32, 134, 138, 193, 195, 230, 289, 332, 368, 369

  military commissions and councils of war convened by, 123–28, 130, 131, 132, 264, 289, 293, 370

  in War of 1812, 122

  secession:

  as crime vs. act of war, 138, 142–43, 143, 146

  grounds for, 201

  of Southern states, 136–37, 142–43, 263, 275

  Second Confiscation Act, 211–12, 229

  Seddon, James, 245–46, 249, 255–56, 262, 287, 299

  Sedgwick, John, 253

  self-defense, 111, 112–13

  preemptive, 112n

  Seminole Indians, 89, 96–99, 97, 102, 107–8, 107, 206, 230

  Seminole Wars, 97, 107, 108, 141, 206, 222, 253, 332

  Semmes, Raphael, 308

  Semmes, Thomas Jenkins, 216

  Senate, U.S., 117, 151, 229, 304, 313, 356

  Foreign Relations Committee of, 137, 148, 205

  Johnson’s impeachment trial in, 322

  select committee of, 104–5

  September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, 5, 370, 371, 372

  Sequalteplan, Battle of, 125

  Sequestration Act, 224

  Seven Days Battles, 209, 232

  Seven Pines, Battle of, 209

  Seven Years’ War, 60–61

  Washington’s involvement in, 13–15

  Seward, William Henry:

  attempted assassination of, 291, 317

  law career of, 148

  as New York governor, 116–17, 137, 147, 148

  political skills of, 147–48, 149

 

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