65. Paddy’s Resource Being a Select Collection of Original and Modern Patriotic Songs, Toasts and Sentiments Compiled for the use of the People of Ireland (Belfast, 1795).
66. Jim Smyth, The Men of No Property: Irish Radicals and Popular Politics in the Late Eighteenth Century (New York: St. Martin’s, 1992), 151.
67. Kevin Whelan, The Tree of Liberty: Radicalism, Catholicism and the Construction of Irish Identity, 1760–1830 (Cork: University of Cork Press, 1996).
68. Thomas Russell, Address to the People of Ireland (1796).
69. Viscount Stewart Castlereagh, Memoirs and Correspondence, ed. Charles Vane II (London, 1850), 417.
70. Detection of a Conspiracy Formed by the United Irishmen (Philadelphia, 1798), 28ff.
71. Roger Wells, Insurrection: The British Experience (Gloucester: Alan Sutton, 1983), 134.
72. Despard’s brother considered his part in the mob to be “extremely foolish; had he possessed common prudence he might now be in comfortable circumstances.” Despard Family MSS., Letter to Andrew Despard from J. Despard, 28 May 1796.
73. Examination of Arthur Graham, TS 11/221/332, f. 46. Iain McCalman, “Newgate in Revolution: Radical Enthusiasm and Romantic Counterculture,” Eighteenth-Century Life 22, no. 1 (1998).
74. Joyce M. Bellamy and John Saville, eds., Dictionary of Labour Biography (Clifton, N.J.: A. M. Kelley, 1972).
75. Ralph Manoque, “The Plight of James Ridgway, London Bookseller and Publisher, and the Newgate Radicals, 1792–1797,” Wordsworth Circle 27 (1996).
76. Doug Hay, “The Laws of God and the Laws of Man: Lord George Gordon and the Death Penalty,” in John Rule and Robert Malcolmson, eds., Protest and Survival: Essays for E. P. Thompson (London: Merlin, 1993), 60–111.
77. PRO, P. C. 1/3553, Examination by Richard Ford.
78. PRO. KB 1/31, pt. 1.
79. David Levi, Dissertations on the Prophecies of the Old Testament, 3 vols. (1793–1800).
80. A. L. Morron, The Everlasting Gospel: A Study in the Sources of William Blake (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1958), 36. E. P. Thompson, Witness against the Beast: William Blake and the Moral Law (New York: The New Press, 1994).
81. Quobna Ottobah Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments on the Evil of Slavery, ed. Vincent Carretta (London: Penguin, 1999), 93, 110, 111.
82. Michael Duffy, Soldiers, Sugar, and Seapower: The British Expeditions to the West Indies and the War against Revolutionary France (London: Oxford University Press, 1987). 387.
83. O. Smith, Politics of Language, 71.
84. Will Chip, Village Politics, addressed to all the mechanics, journeymen and day labourers in Great Britain, by Will Chip, a country carpenter (1793).
85. Joan Dayan, Haiti, History, and the Gods (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1995).
86. John Hunter, Observations on the Disease of the Army in Jamaica (1788), and Charles White, An Account of the Regular Gradation in Man . . . (1799).
87. David V. Erdman, Commerce des Lumières: John Oswald and the British in Paris, 1790–1793 (Columbia, Mo.: University of Missouri Press, 1986).
88. Donna T. Andrew, London Debating Societies, 1776–1999 (London: London Record Society, 1994), 281.
89. Alan Wharam, The Treason Trials 1794 (London: Leicester University Press, 1992), 110.
Chapter Nine
1. Inventory Book, 1B/11/3, vol. 135, National Archives, Spanish Town, Jamaica.
2. Robert Wedderburn, The Horrors of Slavery (London, 1824), republished in Iain McCalman, ed., “The Horrors of Slavery” and Other Writings by Robert Wedderburn (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991). Wedderburn chooses italic, bold, and upper-case characters from the typographer’s case, breaking with the English conventions of printed expression, because he feels that his own character, or type, requires that English conventions of printing and writing, in addition to those of political thinking, be modified to make room for a voice such as his own. The printing parallels Wedderburn’s unconventional interruption described in Cruikshank’s print The City of London Tavern (1817). See page 325.
3. Robert Hamilton, The Duties of a Regimental Surgeon Considered, 2 vols. (1794).
4. Joan Dayan, Haiti, History, and the Gods (Berkeley, Calif: University of California Press, 1995).
5. The Political Register, July 1809; see also The Examiner, September 1810. The punishment was meant to terrorize and to silence. Anna Clark examined the Old Bailey Proceedings and concluded that after 1795 the court began to suppress the testimony of women against violence, rape, and beatings. Deborah Valenze shows that this was the period of the devaluation of women’s labor: the violence against them and the silencing of their complaints were means of making their wages subsubsistence, their work supersubmissive, and themselves an ideal subject for the horrors of the factory. Anna Clark, Women’s Silence, Men’s Violence: Sexual Assault in England, 1770–1845 (London: Pandora, 1987), 17; Deborah Valenze, The First Industrial Woman (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 89.
6. Wedderburn, Horrors of Slavery.
7. Iain McCalman, “Anti-Slavery and Ultra-Radicalism in Early Nineteenth-Century England: The Case of Robert Wedderburn,” Slavery and Abolition 7 (1986): 101–3.
8. See his Truth Self-Supported; or A Refutation of Certain Doctrinal Errors Generally Adopted in the Christian Church (c. 1802), republished in McCalman, ed., “The Horrors of Slavery” and Other Writings.
9. The Axe Laid to the Root, no. 4 (1817).
10. Ian McCalman, Radical Underworld: Prophets, Revolutionaries, and Pornographers in London, 1795–1840 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988); Henry Lewis Gates, Jr., The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of African American Literary Criticism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988).
11. James Cone, A Black Theology of Liberation, 2d cd. (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis, 1986), 31.
12. Political Register, October 1809; Malcolm Chase, “From Millennium to Anniversary: The Concept of Jubilee in Late Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century England,” Past and Present 129 (1990): 132–47. In 1795 Coleridge had lectured with deep scholarship on jubilee and open sympathetic fraternity to the poor.
13. Peter Linebaugh, “Jubilating; Or, How the Atlantic Working Class Used the Biblical Jubilee against Capitalism, with Some Success,” Radical History Review 50 (1991): 143–80; James Harrington, Oceana (London, 1656), and idem, The Art of Lawgiving (London, 1659); John Bunyan, The Advocateship of Jesus Christ (London, 1688).
14. P. M. Ashraf, The Life and Times of Thomas Spence (Newcastle upon Tyne: Frank Graham, 1983), 101. See also Thomas R. Knox, “Thomas Spence: The Trumpet of Jubilee,” Past and Present 76 (1977); Malcolm Chase, “The People’s Farm”: English Radical Agrarianism, 1775–1840 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988); Alan Dean Gilbert II, “Landlords and Lacklanders: The Radical Politics and Popular Political Economy of Thomas Spence and Robert Wedderburn” (Ph.D. diss., SUNY Buffalo, 1997).
15. See “The Marine Republic (1794),” in Pig’s Meat, 2d ed., 2:68–72 (emphasis in original); A. L. Morton, The English Utopia (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1952), 164, 165 (quotation).
16. Joel W. Martin, Sacred Revolt: The Muskogees’ Struggle for a New World (Boston: Beacon Press, 1991). In his last published writing, The Giant Killer (1814), Spence wrote about slavery. See Ashraf, Life and Times.
17. John Wesley, Thoughts Upon Slavery (London, 1774), 55–56,
18. John Rylands Library (Deansgate, Manchester), Methodist Archives Center, Thomas Coke Papers, PLP/28/4/10.
19. Commentary, 481–83.
20. Nathan O. Hatch, The Democratization of American Christianity (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1989), 102–13.
21. Sterling Stuckey, Slave Culture: Nationalist Theory and the Foundations of Black America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), chap. 1.
22. Douglas R. Egerton, Gabriel’s Rebellion: The Virginia Slave Conspiracies of 1800 and 1802 (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1993).
23. Edw
ard A. Pearson, eds., Designs against Charleston: The Trial Record of the Denmark Vesey Slave Conspiracy of 1822 (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1999); Douglas R. Egerton, He Shall Go Out Free: The Lives of Denmark Vesey (Madison, Wisc.: Madison House, 1999).
24. David Walker, Appeal to the Coloured Citizens of the World, but in particular, and very expressly, to those of The United States of America (1829; reprint ed. James Turner, Baltimore: Black Classic Press, 1993); Peter H. Hinks, To Awaken My Afflicted Brethren: David Walker and the Problem of Antebellum Slave Resistance (University Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1997).
25. Henry Mayer, All on Fire: William Lloyd Garrison and the Abolition of Slavery (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1998), 188.
26. Vicki L. Eaklor, American Antislavery Songs: A Collection and Analysis, Documentary Reference Collections series (New York: Greenwood Press, 1988).
27. Elizabeth Campbell may have been related to the several Campbells among the Trelawny maroons, who after their defeat in the Second Maroon War were tricked into being deported to Nova Scotia. Other maroons lived outside their communities without giving up their maroon status. See Mavis C. Campbell, Nova Scotia and the Fighting Maroons: A Documentary History, no. 41 (January 1990) of Studies in Third World Societies, 196, 207, 211, 238. The Jamaica Almanac of 1818 lists an Elizabeth Campbell of Amity Hall in Trelawny as the owner of fifteen slaves. See the Inventory Book, volume 130, page 236 (20 August 1818), and Index to Manumissions, volume I, number 47, National Library (Kingston). The Feurtado Manuscript notes the death of one Elizabeth Campbell, aged thirty-three, in 1825, and identifies her as a matron in the Public Hospital in Kingston; see National Archive (Spanish Town).
28. Alfred Hasbrouck, Foreign Legionaries in the Liberation of Spanish South America (New York: Columbia University Press, 1928); Mavis Campbell, The Dynamics of Change in a Slave Society: A Sociopolitical History of the Free Coloureds of Jamaica, 1800–1865 (Rutherford, N.J.; Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1976), 71.
29. Barbados Mercury and Bridgetown Gazette, 7 September 1816, quoted in Hilary McD. Beckles, Black Rebellion in Barbados: The Struggle against Slavery, 1627–1838 (Barbados: Antilles Publications, 1987), 95–113; Horace Campbell, Rasta and Resistance from Marcus Garvey to Walter Rodney (Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press, 1987), 28; Seymour Drescher, Capitalism and Antislavery: British Mobilization in Comparative Perspective (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 107; Robin Blackburn, The Overthrow of Colonial Slavery, 1776–1848 (London: Verso, 1988), 323–25.
30. A Correct Report of the Trial of James Watson, Senior, for High Treason (1817); The Life and Opinions of Thomas Preston (1817); The Trial of James Watson (1817), 1:72; Malcolm Chase, “Thomas Preston,” in Joyce M. Bellamy, John Saville, and David Martin, eds., Dictionary of Labour Biography, vol. 8 (London: Mcmillan, 1987).
31. Votes of the Honourable House of Assembly, 28 October–16 December 1817, 127, National Library of Jamaica.
32. See Copp’s Return in Andrew Hopton, ed., Abiezer Coppe: Selected Writings (London: Aporia, 1987),72.
33. Mervyn C. Alleyne, Roots of Jamaican Culture (London: Pluto Press, 1988), 83–96; Erna Brodber, Myal, A Novel (London: New Beacon, 1988). See also Edward Long, History of Jamaica (London, 1774); Monica Schuler, “Alas, Alas, Kongo”: A Social History of Indentured African Immigration into Jamaica, 1841–1865 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980), 33–36; and John Thornton, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400–1680 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
34. A Brief Account of the Life, Experience, Travels and Gospel Labours of George White, An African Written by Himself and Revised by a Friend (New York, 1810); J. Ann Hone, For the Cause of Truth: Radicalism in London, 1796–182! (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982), 2.25; Thomas Raine, The Age of Reason, part 1, reprinted in The Thomas Paine Reader, ed. Michael Foot and Isaac Kramnick (London: Penguin, 1987), 413; Thomas Spence, The Restorer of Society to its Natural State (London, 1801), 16–18; HO 42/199 (29 November 1819), PRO.
35. Violet Smythe, “Liberators of the Oppressed: Baptist Mission in Jamaica 1814–1845” (B. A. thesis, University of the West Indies [Mona], 1983). See also Albert J. Raboteau, Slave Religion: The “Invisible Institution” in the Antebellum South (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978).
36. Mary Turner, Slaves and Missionaries: The Disintegration of Jamaican Slave Society, 1787–1834 (Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1982), 88; The Life, History, and Unparalleled Sufferings of John Jea, the African Preacher (Portsea, 1817); Matthew Gregory Lewis, Journal of a West India Proprietor (London, 1834), 187.
37. Thomas Evans, Christian Policy, the Salvation of the Empire (London, 1816), 19; The Axe Laid to the Root, no. 4 (1817).
38. Lewis, Journal, 173–74. Donald G. Mathews, Slavery and Methodism 1780–1845 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1965); Wesley, Thoughts Upon Slavery; M. Turner, Slaves and Missionaries; Edward K. Brathwaite, The Development of Creole Society in Jamaica, 1770–1820 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), 259.
39. Orlando Patterson, “Slavery and Slave Revolt: A Sociological Analysis of the First Maroon War, 1655–1740,” Social and Economic Studies, 1970, and Mavis C. Campbell, The Maroons of Jamaica, 1655–1796: A History of Resistance, Collaboration & Betrayal (South Hadley, Mass,: Bergin and Garvey, 1988); The Axe Laid to the Root, no. 4 (1817).
40. The Axe Laid to the Root, no. 4 (1817).
41. Lewis, Journal, 39, 179; The Axe Laid to the Root, no. 6 (1817).
42. Campbell, The Maroons. See chapter 4 above.
43. M. W. Patterson, Sir Francis Burdett and His Times, 2 vols. (London: Macmillan, 1931).
44. Douglas Hall, ed., In Miserable Slavery: Thomas Thistlewood in Jamaica, 1750–1786 (London: Macmillan, 1989), 26; M. Turner, Slaves and Missionaries, 47; Julius Scott, “Afro-American Sailors and the International Communication Network: The Case of Newport Bowers,” in Colin Howell and Richard J. Twomey, eds., Jack Tarin History: Essays in the History of Maritime Life and Labour (New Brunswick: Acadiensis Press, 1991).
45. Ira Dye, “Physical and Social Profiles of Early American Seafarers, 1812–1815,” in Howell and Twomey, eds., Jack Tar in History.
46. The Axe Laid to the Root, no. 6 (1817). See also Graham Hodges, ed., Black Itinerants of the Gospel: The Narratives of John Jea and George White (Madison, Wise.: Madison House, 1993); W. Jeffrey Bolster, Black Jacks: African American Seamen in the Age of Sail (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997), 33, 211.
47. Brarhwaite, Development of Creole Society, 170 (quoting 1 Geo. III c. 22 [1760]); The Axe Laid to the Root, no. 1 (1817),
48. The Axe Laid to the Root, no. 4 (1817); Lewis, Journal, 405. For suggestions about the “Shariers,” we thank Dr. Kenneth Ingram of the National Library of Jamaica and Professor Mavis Campbell.
49. Barry Higman, Jamaica Surveyed: Plantation Maps and Plans of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries (Kingston: Institute of Jamaica Publications, Ltd., 1988), 261–62; Sidney W. Mintz, “The Historical Sociology of Jamaican Villages,” in Charles V. Carnegie, ed., Afro-Caribbean Villages in Historical Perspective (Kingston: African-Caribbean Institute of Jamaica, 1987).
50. Examination of William Plush (1819), Rex V. Wedderburn (TS 11/45/167, PRO, reprinted in McCalman, ed., “Horrors of Slavery,” 120); The “Forlorn Hope,” or A Call to the Supine (n.d., 1800s).
51. A. J. Peacock, Bread or Blood: A Study of the Agrarian Riots in East Anglia, in 1816 (London: Gollancz, 1965), 18.
52. “Forlorn Hope, “ 15; The Axe Laid to the Root, no. 5 (1817).
53. HO 42/195, PRO, published in McCalman, ed., “Horrors of Slavery,” 111.
54. The Axe Laid to the Root, no. 4 (1817); E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (London: Gollancz, 1963), 632.
55. Old Bailey Proceedings, 15 January 1817; Political Register, No. 21 (1817).
56. The Axe Laid to the Root, no. 6 (1817); The Horrors of
Slavery.
57. National Library (Kingston), Nugent Papers, MS 72, Box 3 (1804–1806), fol. 279.
58. The Axe Laid to the Root, no. 2 (1817).
59. Ibid., ibid., no. 5 (1817).
60. The Axe Laid to the Root, no. 4 (1817).
61. Wedderburn, Truth Self-Supported, in McCalman, ed., “ Horrors of Slavery,” 57, 100.
62. Ibid., 82; Hone, For the Cause of Truth, 307; Iowerth Prothero, “William Benbow and the Concept of the ‘General Strike,’” Past and Present 6) (1974): 147; McCalman, ed., “Horrors of Slavery,” 81, 116.
63. James Kelly, Voyage to Jamaica, 2d ed. (Belfast, 1838), 29–30; Barry M. Higman, Slave Population and Economy in Jamaica, 1807–1834 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), 147; Pierce Egan, Life in London (1821), 320–21.
64. Benjamin Waterhouse, A Journal of a Young Man of Massachusetts (Boston, 1816) reprinted in the Magazine of History, no. 18 (1911).
65. Michael Ventura, “Hear that Long Snake Moan,” in Shadow Dancing in the U.S.A. (Los Angeles: Jeremy P. Tarcher, 1985), 103–162; W.T. Lhamon, Jr., Raising Cain (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998
66. Old Bailey Proceedings, 15 January 1817, and McCalman’s introduction to “Horrors of Slavery,” 15; Stanley Palmer, Police and Protest in England and Ireland, 1780–1850 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 169; Iowerth Prothero, Artisans and Politics in Early Nineteenth-Century London: John Gast and His Times (Baton Rouge, La.: Louisiana State University, 1979), 90.
67. Wedderburn, Truth Self-Supported; in McCalman, cd., “Horrors of Slavery,” 67, 82, 98; The Axe Laid to the Root, nos. 1 and 4 (1817); Robert Wedderburn, High-Heel’d Shoes for Dwarfs in Holiness, 3d ed. (London, 1820), 8; M. Turner, Slaves and Missionaries, 58.
68. Examination of William Plush, in McCalman, ed., “Horrors of Slavery,” 120; Wedderburn, The Address of the Rev. R. Wedderburn, in ibid. 134.
69. Chapters 20–22. The theory stems from Charles DuPuis, Origines de toutes les Cultes (1795).
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