by Sven Beckert
33. Mitchell, International Historical Statistics: The Americas, 227, 316.
34. International Federation of Master Cotton Spinners’ and Manufacturers’ Associations, Official Report of the International Congress, Held in Egypt, 1927 (Manchester: International Federation of Master Cotton Spinners’ and Manufacturers’ Associations, 1927), 28, 49; Arnold Wright, ed., Twentieth Century Impressions of Egypt: Its History, People, Commerce, Industries, and Resources (London: Lloyd’s Greater Britain Publishing Company, 1909), 280; B. R. Mitchell, International Historical Statistics: Africa, Asia and Oceania, 1750–2005 (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 265.
35. Between 1866 and 1905 the number of spindles in Brazil increased by a factor of fifty-three. The Brazil discussion is based on Estatísticas históricas do Brasil: Séries econômicas, demográficas e sociais de 1550 a 1988 (Rio de Janeiro: Fundação Instituto Brasileiro de Geogralica e Estatística, 1990), 346; on the number of spindles see Stanley J. Stein, The Brazilian Cotton Manufacture: Textile Enterprise in an Underdeveloped Area, 1850–1950 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1957), 191; E. R. J. Owen, Cotton and the Egyptian Economy, 1820–1914: A Study in Trade and Development (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969), 90, 123, 124, 197; the permanence of this change is also emphasized by Alan Richards, Egypt’s Agricultural Development, 1800–1980: Technical and Social Change (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1982), 31; Ellison, The Cotton Trade of Great Britain, 91; International Federation of Master Cotton Spinners’ and Manufacturers’ Associations, Official Report of the International Congress, Held in Egypt, 125.
36. Rivett-Carnac, Report of the Cotton Department for the Year 1868–69, 13, 114, 131; Alfred Comyn Lyall, ed., Gazetteer for the Haiderábád Assigned Districts Commonly called Barár (Bombay: Education Society’s Press, 1870), 161; Charles B. Saunders, Administration Report by the Resident at Hyderabad; including a Report on the Administration of the Hyderabad Assigned Districts for the year 1872–73 (Hyderabad: Residency Press, 1872), 12.
37. On the telegraph see Laxman D. Satya, Cotton and Famine in Berar, 1850–1900 (New Delhi: Manohar, 1997), 142, 152. India and Bengal Despatches, vol. 82, August 17, 1853, pp. 1140–42, from Board of Directors, EIC London, to Financial/Railway Department, Government of India, quoted in Satya, Cotton and Famine in Berar, 142. On the sources of funding see Aruna Awasthi, History and Development of Railways in India (New Delhi: Deep & Deep Publications, 1994), 92; General Balfour is quoted in Rivett-Carnac, Report of the Cotton Department for the Year 1868–69, 114. On the relationship between railroads and Manchester goods see ibid., 155; Nelson, Central Provinces District Gazetteers, 248; Report on the Trade of the Hyderabad Assigned Districts for the Year 1883–84, p. 2, in record group V/24, in Hyderabad Assigned Districts, India, Department of Land Records and Agriculture Reports, Oriental and India Office Collections, British Library, London; Jürgen Osterhammel, Kolonialismus: Geschichte, Formen, Folgen, 6th ed. (Munich: Beck, 2006), 10. The quote characterizing Khamgaon is from Satya, Cotton and Famine in Berar, 173. The information on merchants is from John Henry Rivett-Carnac, Many Memories of Life in India, At Home, and Abroad (London: W. Blackwood and Sons, 1910), 166, 169; Times of India, March 11, 1870, 193, 199; “Report on the Cotton Trading Season in CP and Berar,” June 1874, record group Fibres and Silk Branch, No 41/42, Part B, Revenue, Agriculture and Commerce Department, National Archives of India, New Delhi.
38. Journal of the Society of Arts 24 (February 25, 1876): 260; Rivett-Carnac, Report of the Cotton Department for the Year 1868–69, 100; Satya, Cotton and Famine in Berar, 153.
39. Rivett-Carnac, Report of the Cotton Department for the Year 1868–69, 115.
40. Formation of a Special Department of Agriculture, Commerce a Separate Branch of the Home Department, April 9, 1870, 91–102, Public Branch, Home Department, National Archives of India, New Delhi; Douglas E. Haynes, “Market Formation in Khandeshh, 1820–1930,” Indian Economic and Social History Review 36, no. 3 (1999): 294; Asiatic Review (October 1, 1914): 298–364; report by E. A. Hobson, 11, in Department of Revenue and Agriculture, Fibres and Silk Branch, November 1887, Nos. 22–23, Part B, in National Archives of Inda, New Delhi. And indeed, by 1863 Charles Wood could observe that “the present state of things is diminishing the home spinning”; in Charles Wood to James Bruce, Earl of Elgin, June 16, 1863 in MSS EUR F 78, LB 13, Wood Papers, Oriental and India Office Collections, British Library, London; letter from A. J. Dunlop, Assistant Commissioner in Charge of Cotton, to the Secretary of the Chamber of Commerce, Bombay, dated Camp Oomraoti, November 6, 1874, in Revenue, Agricultural and Commerce Department, Fibres and Silk Branch, Proceedings, Part B, November 1874, No. 5, National Archives of India, New Delhi; Satya, Cotton and Famine in Berar, 146, 183; Nelson, Central Provinces District Gazetteers, 248; printed letter from A. J. Dunlop to the Secretary of the Government of India, Revenue, Agriculture and Commerce, Hyderabad, April 2, 1878, in Report on the Trade of the Hyderabad Assigned Districts for the Year 1877–78, p. 6, in record group V/24, in Hyderabad Assigned Districts, India, Department of Land Records and Agriculture, Reports, Oriental and India Office Collections, British Library.
41. Rivett-Carnac, Report of the Cotton Department for the Year 1868–69, 91; Charles Wood to Sir Charles Trevelyan, April 9, 1863, MSS EUR F 78, LB 12, Wood Papers, Oriental and India Office Collections, British Library, London.
42. Satya, Cotton and Famine in Berar, 136–37, 180; Asiatic, June 11, 1872, in MS. f923.2.S330, Newspaper clippings, Benjamin John Smith Papers, Manchester Archives and Local Studies, Manchester. Also in the Northwestern Provinces, total acreage under cotton increased from 953,076 in 1861 to 1,730,634 in 1864. See Logan, “India’s Loss of the British Cotton Market,” 46; George Watt, The Commercial Products of India (London: John Murray, 1908), 600; Times of India, December 10, 1867, as quoted in Moulvie Syed Mahdi Ali, Hyderabad Affairs, vol. 5 (Bombay: Printed at the Times of India Steam Press, 1883), 260.
43. Timothy Mitchell, Rule of Experts: Egypt, Techno-Politics, Modernity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 57.
44. Ibid., 66–71.
45. Ibid., 70.
46. Ibid., 62–63, 67, 71, 73; Great Britain, High Commissioner for Egypt and the Sudan, Reports by His Majesty’s Agent and Consul-General on the Finances, Administration, and Condition of Egypt and the Soudan (London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1902), 24; International Federation of Master Cotton Spinners’ and Manufacturers’ Associations, Official Report: Egypt and Anglo-Egyptian Soudan (Manchester: n.p., 1921), 66.
47. Mitchell, Rule of Experts, 55, 63, 66, 72, 73, 76.
48. Satya, Cotton and Famine in Berar, 85, 169; Nelson, Central Provinces District Gazetteers, 150. On the wastelands see Satya, Cotton and Famine in Berar, 78. Already Karl Marx understood that the core demand of the mill owners was directed toward infrastructure improvements in India, to remove cotton to the coast. See Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Aufstand in Indien (Berlin: Dietz Verlag, 1978 [1853]), 264; Sandip Hazareesingh, “Cotton, Climate and Colonialism in Dharwar, Western India, 1840–1880,” Journal of Historical Geography 38, no. 1 (2012): 14.
49. How to Make India Take the Place of America as Our Cotton Field (London: J. E. Taylor, n.d., probably 1863), 7.
50. Thomas Bazley, as quoted in Merchants’ Magazine and Commercial Review 45, no. 5 (November 1861): 483; Satya, Cotton and Famine in Berar, 34, 47, 59, 62, 87, 91, 95; Nelson, Central Provinces District Gazetteers, 147, 226; A. C. Lydall, Gazetteer for the Haidarabad Assigned Districts, Commonly Called Berar (Bombay: Education Society’s Press, 1870), 96, in record group V/27/65/112, Oriental and India Office Collections, British Library, London; Hazareesingh, “Cotton, Climate and Colonialism in Dharwar, Western India, 1840–1880,” 12; Arno Schmidt, Cotton Growing in India (Manchester: International Federation of Master Cotton Spinners; and Manufacturers’ Associations, 1912), 22.
51. David Hall-Matthews, “Colonial Ideologies of the Market and Famine Policy in Ahmednagar Dis
trict, Bombay Presidency, c. 1870–1884,” Indian Economic and Social History Review 36, no. 3 (1999): 307; Satya, Cotton and Famine in Berar, 80–81; Meltem Toksöz, “The Çukurova: From Nomadic Life to Commercial Agriculture, 1800–1908” (PhD dissertation, State University of New York at Binghamton, 2000), 75; Francis Turner, “Administration Report of the Cotton Department for the Year 1876–77,” in record group V/24/434, Cotton Department, Bombay Presidency, Oriental and India Office Collections, British Library, London.
52. Satya, Cotton and Famine in Berar, 80, 161; Times of India, Overland Summary, January 14, 1864, 3.
53. Christof Dejung, “The Boundaries of Western Power: The Colonial Cotton Economy in India and the Problem of Quality,” in Christof Dejung and Niels P. Petersson, eds., The Foundations of Worldwide Economic Integration: Power, Institutions, and Global Markets, 1850–1930 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 149–50.
54. International Federation of Master Cotton Spinners’ and Manufacturers’ Associations, Official Report of the International Congress, Held in Egypt, 64; E. B. Francis, “Report on the Cotton Cultivation in the Punjab for 1882–1883,” Lahore, 1882, in record group V/24/441, Financial Commission, Oriental and India Office Collections, British Library, London.
55. F. M. W. Schofield, Department of Revenue and Agriculture, Simla, September 15, 1888, in Proceedings, Part B, Nos. 6–8, April 1889, Fibres and Silk Branch, Department of Revenue and Agriculture, National Archives of India, New Delhi; Samuel Ruggles, in front of the New York Chamber of Commerce, reprinted in Merchants’ Magazine and Commercial Review 45, no. 1 (July 1861): 83; Rivett-Carnac, Many Memories, 166, 168; Peter Harnetty, “The Cotton Improvement Program in India, 1865–1875,” Agricultural History 44, no. 4 (October 1970): 389; Satya, Cotton and Famine in Berar, 156ff.
56. Alfred Charles True, A History of Agricultural Experimentation and Research in the United States, 1607–1925 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1937): 41–42; 64, 184, 199, 218, 221, 251, 256; I. Newton Hoffmann, “The Cotton Futures Act,” Journal of Political Economy 23, no. 5 (May 1915): 482; Julia Obertreis, Imperial Desert Dreams: Irrigation and Cotton Growing in Southern Central Asia, 1860s to 1991 (unpublished manuscript, 2009), chapter 1, 66. Since 1899, the Agricultural School (in Egypt) published a magazine (Magazine of the Society of Agriculture) that provided this information in Arabic. See Magazine of the Society of Agriculture and Agricultural School 1 (1899), in National Library, Cairo. See also L’Agriculture: Journal Agricole, Industrial, Commercial et Economique, published since 1891, mostly in Arabic, in National Library, Cairo; International Federation of Master Cotton Spinners’ and Manufacturers’ Associations, Official Report of the International Congress, Held in Egypt, 54.
57. F. M. W. Schofield, “Note on Indian Cotton,” 12, Department of Revenue and Agriculture, Simla, December 15, 1888, in April 1889, Nos. 6–8, Part B, Fibres and Silk Branch, National Archive of India, New Delhi; Satya, Cotton and Famine in Berar, 155; C. N. Livanos, John Sakellaridis and Egyptian Cotton (Alexandria: A. Procaccia, 1939), 79; Harnetty, “The Cotton Improvement,” 383.
58. Hazareesingh, “Cotton, Climate and Colonialism in Dharwar, Western India, 1840–1880,” 7.
59. Bremer Handelsblatt, June 28, 1873, 229; W. F. Bruck, Türkische Baumwollwirtschaft: Eine Kolonialwirtschaftliche und -politische Untersuchung (Jena: Gustav Fischer, 1919), 99; E. S. Symes, “Report on the Cultivation of Cotton in British Burma for the Year 1880–81,” Rangoon, Revenue Department, record group V/24/446, in Oriental and India Office Collections, British Library, London.
60. On cotton exports after the Civil War see “Cotton Production in Queensland from 1866 to 1917,” in A 8510–12/11, Advisory Council of Science and Industry Executive Committee, Cotton Growing, Correspondence with Commonwealth Board of Trade, National Archives of Australia; Adelaide Advertiser, January 11, 1904; Memorandum from Advisory Council to Commonwealth Board of Trade, September 13, 1918, in A 8510, 12/11, Advisory Council of Science and Industry Executive Committee, Cotton Growing, Correspondence with Commonwealth Board of Trade, National Archives of Australia; Theo Price, President, Price-Campbell Cotton Picker Corporation, New York to Advisory Council of Science and Industry, May 15, 1917, in NAA-A 8510–12/33, Advisory Council of Science and Industry Executive Committee, Cotton, Cotton Picker, National Archives of Australia; Sydney Evening News, March 17, 1920. For the general argument see also Buehler, “Die Unabhängigkeitsbestrebungen Englands,” 111.
61. See for example Rudolf Fitzner, “Einiges über den Baumwollbau in Kleinasien,” Der Tropenpflanzer 5 (1901), 530–36; Bruck, Türkische Baumwollwirtschaft, 3.
62. See also Marc Bloch, “Pour une histoire comparée des sociétés européennes,” Revue de Synthèse Historique 46 (1928): 15–50.
63. Michael Mann, “Die Mär von der freien Lohnarbeit: Menschenhandel und erzwungene Arbeit in der Neuzeit,” in Michael Mann, ed., Menschenhandel und unfreie Arbeit (Leipzig: Leipziger Universitätsverlag, 2003), 19; Marcel van der Linden, Workers of the World: Essays Toward a Global Labor History (Boston: Brill, 2008), 18–32, 52–54.
64. Fields, “The Advent of Capitalist Agriculture,” 74; Satya, Cotton and Famine in Berar, 95; Arnold Wright, ed., Twentieth Century Impressions of Egypt: Its History, People, Commerce, Industries, and Resources (London: Lloyd’s Greater Britain Publishing Company, 1909), 281, 284; International Federation of Master Cotton Spinners’ and Manufacturers’ Associations, Official Report of the International Congress, Held in Egypt, 95; Arno S. Pearse, Brazilian Cotton (Manchester: Printed by Taylor, Garnett, Evans & Co., 1921), 75, 81; Michael J. Gonzales, “The Rise of Cotton Tenant Farming in Peru, 1890–1920: The Condor Valley,” in Agricultural History 65, no. 1 (Winter 1991): 53, 58; George McCutcheon McBride, “Cotton Growing in South America,” Geographical Review 9, no. 1 (January 1920): 42; Toksöz, “The Çukurova,” 203, 246; Levant Trade Review 1, no. 1 (June 1911): as quoted in Toksöz, “The Çukurova,” 182.
65. A. T. Moore, Inspector in Chief, Cotton Department, Report, in Proceedings, Part B, March 1875, No. 1/2, Fibres and Silk Branch, Agriculture and Commerce Department, Revenue, National Archives of India, New Delhi; David Hall-Matthews, “Colonial Ideologies of the Market and Famine Policy in Ahmednagar District, Bombay Presidency, c. 1870–1884,” Indian Economic and Social History Review 36, no. 3 (1999): 307; A. E. Nelson, Central Provinces Gazetteers, Buldana District (Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press, 1910), 228; Toksöz, “The Çukurova,” 272; Bruck, Türkische Baumwollwirtschaft, 41, 67.
66. Klein and Engerman, “The Transition from Slave to Free Labor,” 255–70. This was a different system of labor than the one that emerged in the global sugar industry after emancipation. There, indentured workers took on a prominent role. The difference is probably related to the fact that sugar production is much more capital-intensive than the growing of cotton, and, moreover, because there are efficiencies of scale in sugar that do not exist in cotton. For the effects of emancipation on sugar, see especially Rebecca J. Scott, Slave Emancipation in Cuba: The Transition to Free Labor, 1860–1899 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985); David Northrup, Indentured Labor in the Age of Imperialism, 1834–1922 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995); Frederick Cooper, Thomas C. Holt, and Rebecca J. Scott, Beyond Slavery: Explorations of Race, Labor, and Citizenship in Postemancipation Societies (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000).
67. Cotton Supply Reporter (June 15, 1861): 530; M. J. Mathieu, De la culture du coton dans la Guyane française (Épinal: Alexis Cabasse, 1861); Le Courier du Havre, September 19, 1862, in Gen/56, Fonds Ministériels, Archives d’outre-mer, Aix-en-Provence. See also Cotton Supply Reporter (July 1, 1861): 554; Stephen S. Remak, La paix en Amérique (Paris: Henri Plon, 1865), 25–26. On the issue of coolie labor see also Black Ball Line, Liverpool to Messrs. Sandbach, Tinne and Co., January 1, 1864, in Record Group D 176, folder A (various), Sandbach, Tinne & Co, Papers, Merseyside Maritime Museum, Liverpool; Klein and Engerman, “The
Transition from Slave to Free Labor,” 255–70; Alan Richards, Egypt’s Agricultural Development, 1800–1980: Technical and Social Change (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1981), 55, 61.