A treaty reducing strategic arms followed four years later. On July 31, 1991, President George H. W. Bush and Gorbachev signed the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty. Following the framework laid down at Reykjavik, START cut American and Soviet strategic nuclear arsenals by half, to a maximum of six thousand warheads each, deployed on no more than sixteen hundred missiles or heavy bombers. On Christmas Day, five months after the signing of the START agreement, the Soviet Union collapsed, breaking peacefully apart into twelve independent states, and the iron curtain dividing East and West fell.
NOTES
CHAPTER ONE: FRANKLIN AT THE FRENCH COURT
1 Franklin to Joseph Priestley, Jan. 27, 1777, in Benjamin Franklin, Writings of Benjamin Franklin, vol. 7, ed. Albert Smyth (New York: MacMillan, 1907), 18-19.
2 Lord Chatham address to Parliament Nov. 18, 1777, in William Jennings Bryan and Francis Whiting Halsey, eds., The World’s Famous Orations, (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1906), 219.
3 Stacy Schiff, A Great Improvisation: Franklin, France, and the Birth of America (New York: Holt, 2005), 14-15.
4 H. W. Brands, The First American: The Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin (New York: Random House, 2000), 527.
5 Alfred Owen Aldridge, Franklin and His French Contemporaries (New York: New York University Press, 1957), 268.
6 Franklin to Hancock, December 8, 1776, in Francis Wharton, ed., Revolutionary Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States, vol. 2 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1889), 222. Tadashi Aruga, “Revolutionary Diplomacy and the Franco-American Treaties of 1778,” Japanese Journal of American Studies, no. 2 (1985), 81. Schiff, Improvisation, 59.
7 David Schoenbrun, Triumph in Paris: The Exploits of Benjamin Franklin (New York: Harper & Row, 1976), 82-83. Gerald Stourzh, Benjamin Franklin and American Foreign Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969), 136-137. Benjamin Franklin, Letters from France: The Private Diplomatic Correspondence of Benjamin Franklin 1776-1785, ed. Brett Woods (New York: Algora Publishing, 2006), 10.
8 Commissioners to Vergennes, January 5, 1777, in Wharton, Revolutionary Diplomatic Correspondence, vol. 2, 246.
9 Ibid.
10 Ibid.
11 James Breck Perkins, France in the American Revolution (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1911), 228.
12 Laura Charlotte Sheldon, France and the American Revolution: 1763-1788 (Ithaca, NY: Andrus & Church, 1900), 48.
13 Morris to commissioners, December 21, 1777, in Wharton, Revolutionary Diplomatic Correspondence, vol. 2, 236. Committee of Secret Correspondence to commissioners, December 21, 1776, in Wharton, Revolutionary Diplomatic Correspondence, vol. 2, 230. Personal pledge of commissioners, February 2, 1777, in Wharton, Revolutionary Diplomatic Correspondence, vol. 2, 260.
14 Benjamin Harrison et al., Committee of Secret Correspondence to the Commissioners at Paris, December 30, 1776, in Wharton, Revolutionary Diplomatic Correspondence, vol. 2, 240.
15 Commissioners to Vergennes, March 18, 1777, in New York Historical Society Collections, 1887 (New York: New York Historical Society, 1887), 27.
16 Frank W. Brecher, Securing American Independence: John Jay and the French Alliance (Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 2003), 67.
17 Deane in Open letter to Joseph Reed, 1784, in Silas Deane and Charles Isham, The Deane Papers, 1774-1799, vol. 5 (New York: New York Historical Society, 1888), 438.
18 Perkins, France in the American Revolution, 229.
19 Schiff, A Great Improvisation, 99.
20 American Commissioners: Memorial for Comte de Vergennes and Conde d’Aranda, September 25, 1777, in Mary A. Giunta, ed., Documents of the Emerging Nation: U.S. Foreign Relations, 1775-1789 (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, in cooperation with the National Historical Publications and Records Commission, 1998), 47.
21 Richard Henry Lee, Life of Arthur Lee: Joint Commissioner of the U.S. to the Court of France, and Sole Commissioner to the Courts of Spain and Prussia, During the Revolutionary War (Boston: Wells and Lilly, 1829), 335.
22 Ibid.
23 Aruga, “Revolutionary Diplomacy,” 87.
24 Lee, Life of Arthur Lee, 357.
25 Franklin, Deane, and Lee to Vergennes, December 8, 1777, in Wharton, Revolutionary Diplomatic Correspondence, vol. 2, 444-445.
26 Lee, Life of Arthur Lee, 362.
27 Edward S. Corwin, French Policy and the American Alliance of 1788 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1916), 156.
28 Ibid., 156-157.
29 Sheldon, France and the American Revolution, 61.
30 Ibid., 66.
31 Perkins, France in the American Revolution, 232.
32 Weldon A. Brown, Empire or Independence: A Study in the Failure of Reconciliation, 1774-1783 (Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press, 1966), 186.
33 Corwin, French Policy and the American Alliance, 150.
34 Perkins, France in the American Revolution, 125.
35 Ibid., 58.
36 Ron Avery, “The Story of Valley Forge,” http://www.ushistory.org/valley-forge/history/vstory.html.
37 Ibid.
38 Washington to Governor George Clinton, Valley Forge, February 16, 1778, in George Washington and Jared Sparks, ed., The Writings of George Washington: Being His Correspondence, Addresses, Messages, and Other Papers, Official and Private, Selected and Published from the Original Manuscripts (Boston: G. W. Boynton, 1834), 239.
39 Ibid.
40 Brown, Empire or Independence, 186.
41 Schiff, A Great Improvisation, 132.
42 Lee, Life of Arthur Lee, 375-378; also Schiff, A Great Improvisation
43 Corwin, French Policy and the American Alliance, 154.
44 Brown, Empire or Independence, 194.
45 Treaty of Amity and Commerce, in Samuel Flagg Bemis, The Diplomacy of the American Revolution (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1965), 61-65.
46 Walter Isaacson, Benjamin Franklin: An American Life (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2003), 347.
CHAPTER TWO: THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE
1 Peter Kastor, ed. The Louisiana Purchase: Emergence of an American Nation (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 2002), 168.
2 Francois Barbé-Marbois, The History of Louisiana, Particularly of the Cessation of That Colony to the United States of America (Philadelphia: Carey & Lea, 1830), 240-241.
3 Jefferson to de Nemours, April 25, 1802, in Thomas Jefferson and Pierre Samuel Du Pont de Nemours, The Correspondence of Jefferson and Du Pont de Nemours, ed. Gilbert Chinard (New York: Burt Franklin, 1972), 47.
4 Barbé-Marbois, History of Louisiana, 30.
5 Kastor, Louisiana Purchase, 168.
6 Barbé-Marbois, History of Louisiana, 230.
7 John Keats, Eminent Domain: The Louisiana Purchase and the Making of America (New York: Charterhouse, 1973), 288; also Emil Ludwig, Napoleon (New York: Boni & Liveright, 1926), 106.
8 Livingston to Jefferson, March 12, 1803, in State Papers and Correspondence Bearing Upon the Purchase of the Territory of Louisiana (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of State, 1903), 144.
9 Jefferson to Monroe, January 13, 1803, in State Papers and Correspondence, 69.
10 George Dangerfield, Chancellor Robert R. Livingston of New York, 1746-1813 (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1960), 361.
11 Barbé-Marbois, History of Louisiana, 275.
12 George Morgan, Life of James Monroe (New York: AMS Press, 1969), 245.
13 Barbé-Marbois, History of Louisiana, 276.
14 Ibid., 275.
15 Jon Kukla, A Wilderness So Immense: The Louisiana Purchase (New York: Knopf, 2003), 213.
16 Lewis Stewarton, The Revolutionary Plutarch: Exhibiting the Most Distinguished Characters, Literary, Military, and Political, in the Recent Annals of the French Republic (London: J. Murray, 1806), 344.
17 Morgan, Life of James Monroe, 232.
18 Ibid.
19 Joan Dayan, Haiti, History, and the Gods (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1998), 162.
&nb
sp; 20 Barbé-Marbois, History of Louisiana, 242.
21 Ibid., 276.
22 Ibid., 278.
23 Livingston to Madison, April 11, 1803, in State Papers and Correspondence, 158.
24 Ibid.
25 Barbé-Marbois, History of Louisiana, 278.
26 Livingston to Madison, April 13, 1803, in State Papers and Correspondence, 159-163.
27 Barbé-Marbois, History of Louisiana, 302.
28 Livingston to Madison, April 13, 1803, in State Papers and Correspondence, 159-163.
29 Ibid.
30 Ibid.
31 Ibid.
32 Ibid.
33 Livingston to Madison, April 17, 1803, in State Papers and Correspondence, 172-175.
34 Ibid.
35 Ibid.
36 Ibid.
37 Barbé-Marbois to Talleyrand, April 21, 1803, Documents of the French Government Archives, Library of Congress Manuscript Division.
38 Ibid.
39 Livingston to Madison, April 17, 1803, in State Papers and Correspondence 172-175.
40 Barbé-Marbois, History of Louisiana, 283.
41 Ibid., 285.
42 Ibid., 286.
43 Ibid.
44 Ibid., 282.
45 Ibid., 292.
46 Ibid., 238.
47 Charles Cerami, Jefferson’s Great Gamble: The Remarkable Story of Jefferson, Napoleon and the Men Behind the Louisiana Purchase (Naperville, IL: Sourcebooks, 2003), 195.
48 Henry Adams, History of the United States During the Administration of Thomas Jefferson (New York: Library of America, 1986), 220.
49 Monroe’s Journal, in State Papers and Correspondence, 165-172.
50 Ibid.
51 Barbé-Marbois, History of Louisiana, 300.
52 Ibid., 298.
53 Monroe’s Journal, in State Papers and Correspondence, 165-172.
54 Barbé-Marbois, History of Louisiana, 310-311.
55 Jefferson to Williamson, April 30, 1803, in State Papers and Correspondence, 182.
56 Barbé-Marbois, History of Louisiana, 312.
57 Christopher Herold, The Age of Napoleon (New York: Harper & Row, 1963), 310.
58 Livingston to Madison, May 20, 1803, in State Papers and Correspondence, 200.
59 Curtis Manning Geer, The Louisiana Purchase and the Westward Movement (Philadelphia: G. Barrie, 1904), 211.
CHAPTER THREE: THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA
1 Treaty of Paris, May 30, 1814, Article 32.
2 Talleyrand to King Louis XVIII, October 9, 1814, in Charles Maurice Talleyrand, The Correspondence of Prince Talleyrand and King Louis XVIII During the Congress of Vienna (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1881), 15.
3 Circular to Ambassadors by M. Talleyrand, October 3, 1814, in Talleyrand, Correspondence of Prince Talleyrand, 15n.
4 Harold Nicolson, The Congress of Vienna: A Study in Allied Unity, 1812-22 (New York: Viking Compass, 1946), 142.
5 Ibid.
6 Ibid., 170.
7 Charles Webster, The Congress of Vienna (London: Foreign Office, 1918), 120.
8 Talleyrand to King Louis XVIII, October 25, 1814, in Talleyrand, Correspondence of Prince Talleyrand, 45-46.
9 Ibid.
10 Susan Mark Alsop, The Congress Dances (New York: Harper & Row, 1984), 152.
11 Adam Zamoyski, Rites of Peace: The Fall of Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna (New York: HarperCollins, 2007), 299.
12 Ibid., 389.
13 Talleyrand to King Louis XVIII, November 12, 1814, in Talleyrand, Correspondence of Prince Talleyrand, 67.
14 Ibid., 66.
15 Zamoyski, Rites of Peace, 295.
16 Talleyrand to King Louis XVIII, October 31, 1814, in Talleyrand, Correspondence of Prince Talleyrand, 56.
17 Talleyrand to King Louis XVIII, November 25, 1814, in Talleyrand, Correspondence of Prince Talleyrand, 87.
18 Guglielmo Ferrero, The Reconstruction of Europe: Talleyrand and the Congress of Vienna 1814-1815 (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1941), 187.
19 Duff Cooper, Talleyrand (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1932), 240.
20 Talleyrand to King Louis XVIII, September 17, 1814, in Talleyrand, Correspondence of Prince Talleyrand, 77.
21 Golo Mann, Secretary of Europe: The Life of Friedrich Gentz, Enemy of Napoleon, tr. William H. Woglom (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1946), 213.
22 Zamoyski, Rites of Peace, 333-334.
23 Ibid., 369.
24 Alsop, Congress Dances, 167.
25 Ferrero, Reconstruction of Europe, 263.
26 Zamoyski, Rites of Peace, 361.
27 Ibid., 363-4.
28 Ibid.
29 Talleyrand to King Louis XVIII, December 15, 1814, in Talleyrand, Correspondence of Prince Talleyrand, 111.
30 Ferrero, Reconstruction of Europe, 268.
31 Paul Johnson, The Birth of the Modern: World Society 1815-1830 York: HarperCollins, 1991), 94.
32 Ferrero, Reconstruction of Europe, 268-272.
33 Talleyrand to King Louis XVIII, December 20, 1814, in Talleyrand, Correspondence of Prince Talleyrand, 115-116.
34 Zamoyski, Rites of Peace, 377.
35 Ibid., 373.
36 Ibid., 380.
37 Talleyrand to King Louis XVIII, December 28, 1814, in Talleyrand, Correspondence of Prince Talleyrand, 120.
38 Ibid., 123.
39 Henry Kissinger, A World Restored: Metternich, Castlereagh and the Problems of Peace 1812-22 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1957), 167-8.
40 Zamoyski, Rites of Peace, 390.
41 Ibid., 391.
42 Ibid.
43 Ibid.
44 Cooper, Talleyrand, 255.
45 Alsop, Congress Dances, 172.
46 Declaration of the Powers, on the Abolition of the Slave Trade, February 8, 1815.
47 Zamoyski, Rites of Peace, 448.
48 Nicolson, Congress of Vienna, 226.
49 Johnson, Birth of the Modern, 79.
Chapter Four: The Portsmouth Treaty
1 William Roscoe Thayer, John Hay (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1908), 401.
2 Eugene Trani, The Treaty of Portsmouth: An Adventure in American Diplomacy (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1969), 41.
3 Theodore Roosevelt, Theodore Roosevelt: An Autobiography (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1913), 555.
4 Ibid.
5 Ibid.
6 Joseph Bishop, Theodore Roosevelt and His Time Shown in His Own Letters (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1920), 382.
7 Roosevelt to Lodge, May 15, 1905, in Theodore Roosevelt, The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, vol. 4, The Square Deal, 1903-1905, ed. Elting Morison (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1951), 1179.
8 U.S. Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1905 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1906), 807.
9 Ibid.
10 Bishop, Theodore Roosevelt and His Time, 392.
11 Roosevelt to Meyer, December 26, 1904, in Bishop, Theodore Roosevelt and His Time, 356.
12 Edmund Morris, Theodore Rex (New York: Random House, 2001), 390; also Morinosuke Kajima, The Diplomacy of Japan, 1844-1922: Anglo-Japanese Alliance and Russo-Japanese War (Tokyo: Kajima Institute of International Peace, 1976), 222.
13 Kajima, Diplomacy of Japan, 222-223.
14 M. A. De Wolf Howe, George Von Lengerke Meyer: His Life and Public Services (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1920), 159.
15 Frederick W. Marks, Velvet on Iron: The Diplomacy of Theodore Roosevelt (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1981), 51.
16 Morris, Theodore Rex, 402.
17 Sergei Witte, The Memoirs of Count Witte., ed. and trans. Sidney Harcave (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1990), xiv.
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