James Casey, ‘Spain: a Failed Transition’, in Peter Clark, ed., The European Crisis of the 1590s (London, 1985), is a suggestive overview of Spain's ‘crisis of the 1590s’, discussed in ch. 8 of this book. The Castilian Crisis of the Seventeenth Century, ed. I. A. A. Thompson and Bartolomé Yun Casalilla (Cambridge, 1994), provides a sampling of the work of native Spanish historians in the fields of seventeenth-century economic and social history. Antonio Domínguez Ortiz, La sociedad española en el siglo XVII (2 vols, 1963 and 1970; repr. Granada, 1992), is a now classic study of the nobility and clergy in seventeenth-century Spain, based on a vast range of archival sources, while his Instituciones y sociedad en la España de los Austrias (Madrid, 1985) reprints some of his most important essays on the social, economic and fiscal history of the period. Charles Jago, ‘The “Crisis of the Aristocracy” in Seventeenth-Century Castile‘, Past and Present, 84 (1979), pp. 60–90, gives an insight into the financial situation of the great families of Castile.
The traditional picture of the seventeenth century in Spanish America as a period of depression, originally advanced in W.Borah, New Spain's Century of Depression (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1951) has been qualified by later research, well summarized in ch. 11 of Peter Bakewell's A History of Latin America, and by John Lynch in his Spain, 1598–1700.
The reign of Philip III, long neglected, is belatedly receiving atten-tion. Antonio Feros, Kingship and Favoritism in the Spain of Philip III, 1598–1621 (Cambridge, 2000), is an innovative account of the methods of government of the Duke of Lerma, and of the adaptation of Spanish political theory to incorporate the institutional emergence of the favourite – a theme explored for the century as a whole in Francisco Tomás y Valiente, Los validos en la monarquía española del siglo XVII (1963; 2nd ed., Madrid, 1990). The World of the Favourite, ed. J. H. Elliott and L. W. B. Brockliss (New Haven and London, 1999), sets Spanish favourites alongside their European counterparts. Contemporary ideas about the role of the favourite are also explored, along with other major themes in seventeenth-century Spanish political thought, by José Antonio Maravall, La teoría española del estado en el siglo XVII (Madrid, 1944; French edition, La philosophie politique espagnole au XVIIe siécle, Paris, 1955). The return of peace in the early years of Philip III is the subject of Paul C.Allen, Philip III and the Pax Hispanica, 1598–1621 (New Haven and London, 2000), while H.R. Trevor-Roper, ‘Spain and Europe, 1598–1621’, in The New Cambridge History, vol. 4, ed. J.P. Cooper (Cambridge, 1970) is an incomparable account of Spain's international system.
On the reign of Philip IV, A. Cánovas del Castillo, Estudios del reinado de Felipe IV (2 vols., Madrid, 1888–9; 2nd ed., 1927), retains its usefulness as a pioneering study and a documentary resource. R. A. Stradling, Philip IV and the Government of Spain, 1621–1665 (Cambridge, 1988), seeks to reassess the role of the king, and is particularly useful for the second half of the reign, which remains relatively unknown and under studied. The first half of Philip's reign is dominated by the figure of the Count-Duke of Olivares, for whom see J. H. Elliott, The Count-Duke of Olivares. The Statesman in an Age of Decline (New Haven and London, 1986). Gregorio Marañón, El Conde-Duque de Olivares (3rd ed., Madrid, 1952) is a fascinating psychological portrait, but is stronger on personalities than politics. Detailed information on the financial problems confronting Olivares and his attempts to resolve them is supplied by Antonio Domínguez Ortiz, Política y hacienda de Felipe IV (Madrid, 1960), and James C. Boyajian, Portuguese Bankers at the Court of Spain, 1626–1650 (New Brunswick, New Jersey, 1983). The entrenchment of oligarchy in the conciliar system is well illustrated in Janine Fayard, Les membres du Conseil de Castille à l'époque moderne, 1621–1746 (Geneva, 1979).
On foreign policy and war, see, in addition to the biographies of king and minister cited above, Jonathan I. Israel, The Dutch Republic and the Hispanic World, 1606–1661 (Oxford, 1982), and his Conflicts of Empires, Spain, the Low Countries and the Struggle for World Supremacy, 1585–1713 (London and Rio Grande, 1997). J.H. Elliott, Richelieu and Olivares (Cambridge, 1984), compares the French and Spanish ministers and their respective responses to their domestic and foreign challenges. For the strengths and weaknesses of Spanish naval power, see David Goodman, Spanish Naval Power, 1589–1665 (Cambridge, 1997), Carla Rahn Phillips, Six Galleons for the King of Spain (Baltimore and London, 1986), and R. A. Stradling, The Armada of Flanders (Cambridge, 1992). Ruth Mackay, The Limits of Royal Authority (Cambridge, 1999), uses the theme of recruiting for the royal armies to explore the extent to which Madrid could get its orders obeyed.
Martin Hume, The Court of Philip IV (London, 1907; 2nd ed., 1928), offers a readable but excessively melodramatic account of the court and court life, and now looks distinctly dated. Joanathan Brown and J.H.Elliott, A Palace for a King. The Buen Retiro and the Court of Philip IV (New Haven and London, 1980), discusses the building of the king's pleasure-palace within the wider context of court life and the cultural and artistic history of the reign. See also part III of J. H. Elliott, Spain and its World, devoted to ‘The World of the Court‘. Jonathan Brown, Velázquez. Painter and Courtier (New Haven and London, 1986), sets the artist firmly into the context of the court, and is very revealing on his social aspirations.
For the Catalan revolution of 1640, see J.H. Elliott, The Revolt of the Catalans (Cambridge, 1963), and J. Sanabre, La acción de Francia en Cataluña (Barcelona, 1956), which deals with Catalonia during the French occupation. James S. Amelang, Honored Citizens of Barcelona (Princeton, 1986), looks at the Barcelona patriciate and its culture both before and after the 1640 revolt. There is as yet no fully satisfactory account of the Portuguese revolution of 1640, but António M. Hespanha, Visperas del Leviatán (Madrid, 1989), is important for the institutional background. Rafael Valladares, La rebelión de Portugal, 1640–1680 (Valladolid, 1998), is primarily concerned with Madrid's abortive attempts to recover Portugal, and with the process of consolidation of Portugal's new-found independence. J. H. Elliott, R. Villari, et al., 1640: la monarquía hispánica en crisis (Barcelona, 1992), is a selection of essays by an international team of historians on the crisis of the 1640s in different parts of the Spanish Monarchy. A. Domínguez Ortiz, Alteraciones andaluzas (Madrid, 1973), is a pioneering account of the unrest in Andalusia. The reasons for non-revolt can be as revealing as the reasons for revolt, and James Casey, The Kingdom of Valencia in the Seventeenth Century (Cambridge, 1979), is an important study of a region of Spain which remained politically quiescent throughout the vicissitudes of the seventeenth century.
The second half of Philip IV's reign, after the fall of Olivares, remains largely unexplored territory. Cartas de Sor María de Jesús de Ágreda y de Felipe IV, ed. Carlos Seco Serrano (2 vols., Biblioteca de Autores Españoles, 108–9, Madrid, 1958), prints the extraordinary correspondence between the king and the nun. R. Ezquerra Abadía, La conspir-ación del Duque de Híjar, 1648 (Madrid, 1934), throws light on the causes of aristocratic discontent. The Oxford University doctoral dissertation (1999) by Alistair Malcolm on ‘Don Luis de Haro and the Political Elite of the Spanish Monarchy in the Mid-Seventeenth Century’, to be published by Oxford University Press, provides a wealth of new information on the methods of government of Olivares's successor as the principal minister of the Spanish crown.
The reign of Charles II has fared no better than the later years of the reign of his father, but Henry Kamen, Spain in the Later Seventeenth Century, 1665–1700 (London, 1980), is a useful overview of this neglected period. The Duque de Maura, Vida y reinado de Carlos II (2 vols., 2nd ed., Madrid, 1954), is a complex analysis of court history and intrigue. John Nada, Carlos the Bewitched (London, 1962), is a gloomily readable biography.
There is a large, and growing, literature on the cultural life of seventeenth-century Spain. José Antonio Maravall, Culture of the Baroque (Minneapolis, 1975), which seeks to set Spanish Baroque culture in a European context, provides fascinating information and insights within the framework of a controversial the
sis about the repressive character of the Baroque. Melveena McKendrick, Theatre in Spain, 1490–1700 (Cambridge, 1989), is an admirable introduction to the history of Golden Age theatre. Jonathan Brown, Images and Ideas in Seventeenth-Century Spanish Painting (Princeton, 1978), is a collection of essays which illustrate the interconnection of art, literature and religion. J. M. López Piñero, La introducción de la ciencia moderna en España (Barcelona, 1969), traces the slow and tentative reception of the new scientific ideas into the Spain of Charles II.
Index
Dates are those of birth and death, except for those after the names of kings, which are regnal dates
Academies, 342, 369
Acosta, José de, botanist, 384
Acuña, Antonio de, Bishop of Zamora (d. 1526), 157–8
Acuña, Hernando de (d. 1580), poet, 249, 284
Administration,
in Castile, 90–92, 257–9, 275–6, 366–7; local government, 93–6
in Spanish Monarchy, 170–81, 375–6, 377–8, 383 see also Aragon, Crown of; Conciliar system; Indies; Secretaries; Viceroys
Adrian of Utrecht (Pope Adrian VI) (1459–1523), 102, 145, 201, 213
regent of Castile (1520–22), 154–5, 157
Africa, North, 53–4, 168, 232
Agriculture, 117–20, 189, 195–6, 293–8
Agustín, Antonio, Vice-Chancellor of Aragon, 143
Álamos de Barrientos, Baltasar (1555–1643), political theorist, 329
Alba, 2nd Duke of, Fadrique Álvarez de Toledo (d. 1531), 140, 172
Alba, 3rd Duke of, Fernando Álvarez de Toledo y Pimentel (1507–82), 160, 168, 233, 267, 272, 275
Court faction of, 261–3, 281, 328
Albert, Archduke (1559–1621), 275, 290
Alburquerque, 7th Duke of, Francisco Fernández de la Cueva (d. 1637), Viceroy of Catalonia, 331
Alburquerque, Leonor de, 34
Alcabala, 92, 202–3, 231, 269, 285–6
Alcalá, Duke of, Fernando Afán de Ribera y Enríquez (1584–1637), 319, 331
Alcalá de Henares, university of, 105, 127, 128, 129, 215, 217
Alcalde, 93, 96
Alcalde de Zalamea, El, 295
Alcaraz, Pedro Ruiz de, 213–4
Alcázarquivir, battle of (1578), 266, 271
Alemán, Mateo (1547–1620), writer, 246
Alexander VI, Pope, 53, 69, 77, 79, 102, 103, 104
Alfonso V, the Magnanimous, of Aragon (1416–58), 35, 36, 39–40
Alfonso V, of Portugal (1438–81), 20, 23
Algiers, 53–4
Aljubarrota, battle of (1385), 43
Almagro, Diego de (1472–1538), conquistador, 64
Almazán, 2nd Marquis of, Francisco Hurtado de Mendoza (d. 1615), Viceroy of Catalonia, 331
Almenara, 1st Marquis of, Iñigo de Mendoza y de la Cerda (d. 1591), 279–81
Alonso de Aragón, natural son of John II of Aragon, 87
Alonso de Aragón (1478–1520), natural son of Ferdinand II, Archbishop of Zaragoza, 142
Alpujarras, first revolt of (1499–1500), 51–2, 53, 123 second revolt of (1568–70), 236–41, 242
Alumbrados, see Illuminism
Álvarez de Toledo, house of (Dukes of Alba), 23, 260
America, see Indies
Andalusia, 186–8, 235–40, 348
reconquest of, 26, 46–52
Antwerp, sack of (1576), 264
Aragon, Crown of, 27
dynastic union with Castile, 18–19, 24–5, 42–4
traditional foreign policy of, 19–20, 23, 131–5, 140–41
population of, 24–5, 37
greatness and decline of, 27–31, 34–5, 36–41, 42
and the New World, 78–9, 375, 376
administrative organization of, 79–80, 82–4, 90–91
recruiting in, 82, 330–31, 332
Inquisition in, 107–8
fear of Castilianization, 255–7
lack of unity in, 350–52
and Bourbons, 375–8
Aragon, kingdom of, 25–6, 27–30, 332, 351–2, 376
revolt of 1591–2, 277–84
Aragón, Cardinal Pascual de (1625–77), 362
Aranda, Count of, Aragonese noble, 282
Aranjuez, 254, 367
Arbitristas, 300, 303, 310, 315–16, 317, 328
influence of, 324, 327, 380, 385
Arbués, Pedro de, inquisitor, 107
Architecture, 127, 253–4, 319
Archive, state, 171
Arias Montano, Benito (1527–98), chaplain of Philip II, 227, 242, 245, 247, 251
Aristocracy,
in Andulasia, 26, 57
in Castile, 111–16;ideals of, 32–3; income and expenditure, 34, 111–13, 179, 195, 312–15; privileges of, 115–16, 203–5, 336; creations of, 314; faction struggles, 142, 147–8, 221–2, 259–62, 279
relations with Crown, in 15th century, 15–16, 34; under Ferdinand and Isabella, 86–92, 111–14; (1504–20), 114, 138–9, 141–3; during revolt of Comuneros, 154–9; under Charles V, 114, 204; under Philip II, 212, 259–62; under Philip III, 302, 312, 314; under Philip IV, 336, 342, 348–9; under Charles II, 363, 364–5, see also Grandees, Hidalguía
in Crown of Aragon, 28, 112̵13; in Catalonia, 40–41, 340, 353, in kingdom of Aragon, 277–9, 282
in the Indies, 63, 75
in Portugal, 270–72, 346
provincial aristrocracies in Spanish Monarchy, 352
Armada, Invincible, 270, 285, 287–9
Army, 46–8, 133–4, 142, 350
in Netherlands, 263–4, 325–6, 326, 341 see also Billeting; Recruiting
Art, 127, 318–19, 367, 384–6
Asiento, 206, 264, 333
Auctions, 318
Audiencias, 97, 174–5, 178–9, 377
Ávalos, Hernando de, Toledan noble, 148
Avis, house of, 43, 270
Ayamonte, 6th Marquis of, Francisco
Antonio de Guzmán y Zúñiga (d. 1648), 348
Aytona, 4th Marquis of, Guillermo Ramón de Moncada (d. 1670), 362, 364
Azores, 43, 58
Azpilcueta Navarro, Martín de (1491–1586), professor at Salamanca, 191–2
Balboa, Vasco Núñez de (1475?–1519), 62
Balearic Islands, 26, 232, 241, 375
Baltasar Carlos, son of Philip IV (1629–46), 357
Bandits, Catalan, 304, 331, 371
Bankers, 38, 182, 199–200, 201, 206–7, 333
Castilian, 197, 287 see also Bankruptcies, royal
Bankruptcies, royal, (1557), 199–200, 210–11, 231; (1575), 263, 269; (1596), 287, 290; (1607), 290–91; (1627), 333–4; (1647), 356; (1653), 356; (1680), 367
Banks, 38, 264, 328
Barajas, 1st Count of, Francisco Zapata de Cisneros (d. 1592), President of Council of Castile, 275
Barbarossa, Kheireddin, 54
Barcelona, 27
decline of, 38, 40–41, 108
and revolt against Philip IV, 337, 340, 345, 353–4
captured by French (1697), 373; by Bourbons (1714), 377
Bedmar, Marquis of, Alfonso de la Cueva (1572–1655), ambassador to Venice 1607–18,325
Behetrías, 68
Béjar, 2nd Duke of, Álvaro de Zúñiga (d. 1531), 145, 172
Benavente, 6th Count of, Antonio Alfonso Pimentel, 204
Bible, 105, 129, 225, n.3, 226
Biga and Busca, Catalan factions, 40
Bilbao, 121
Billeting, 295, 243, 344
Bishops, 99–102, 103, 204 see also Church
Black Death, 33, 37
Blake, Admiral, 186
Boabdil, King of Granada (1482–92), 47–51
Bodin, Jean, 192
Bourbons, 375–8
Bourgeoisie, 26, 34, 197–8, 310–11 see also Towns
Braganza, Catherine, Duchess of, 267
Braganza, Duke of, John IV of Portugal (1640–56), 338, 346–7, 354
Bravo, Juan (d. 1521), Comunero leader, 158
Brazil, 63, 270, 337,338,
341–2, 355
Breda, 341
Breisach, fall of (1638), 341
Brill, captured by Sea Beggars (1572), 242
Burgos, 94, 157
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